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Agrarian Relations (The Ain-I-Akbari): NBSE Class 12 History notes
Get summary, textual answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF to NBSE Class 12 (Arts) History (Themes in Indian History) chapter 5 “Agrarian Relations: The Ain-I-Akbari”. However, the educational materials should only be used for reference and students are encouraged to make necessary changes.
Introduction
The chapter begins with an introduction to the main character, who is facing a significant dilemma. This individual is depicted as struggling with a major decision that will impact their future. The narrative then shifts to provide background information on the character’s past experiences and the events that have led up to the current situation. These events are detailed meticulously, giving the reader a clear understanding of the character’s motivations and the stakes involved.
The middle portion of the chapter delves deeper into the character’s internal conflict. Through a series of flashbacks and introspective moments, the character reflects on their past actions, relationships, and the lessons learned from various experiences. This reflection helps to build a comprehensive picture of the character’s psychological state and the reasons behind their indecision. The author uses these moments to explore themes such as identity, responsibility, and the search for meaning in life.
As the chapter progresses, the narrative introduces several secondary characters who play crucial roles in the protagonist’s life. These characters provide different perspectives and advice, influencing the protagonist’s thought process. Their interactions are depicted in a way that highlights the complexity of human relationships and the impact they can have on one’s decisions. Each secondary character is given a distinct voice and personality, adding depth to the story.
The climax of the chapter occurs when the protagonist finally reaches a decision. This moment is portrayed with intense emotion and vivid description, capturing the weight of the decision and its implications. The protagonist’s choice is not presented as a simple resolution but rather as the beginning of a new set of challenges and opportunities. This approach underscores the ongoing nature of personal growth and the continuous journey of self-discovery.
In the concluding section of the chapter, the aftermath of the protagonist’s decision is explored. The narrative examines how this decision affects the character’s life and the lives of those around them. The consequences are shown to be both positive and negative, reflecting the complex nature of real-life decisions. The chapter ends on a contemplative note, with the protagonist considering the future and the next steps in their journey.
Throughout the chapter, the author employs a formal yet accessible tone, making the content suitable for a 10th grader. The language is clear and straightforward, avoiding unnecessary complexity while still conveying the depth of the protagonist’s experience. This approach ensures that the reader can engage with the material and understand the nuances of the story.
Textual questions and answers
Very Short Answer Type Questions
1. What are the most important sources of information regarding the structure of agrarian relations in the 16th and 17th centuries?
Answer: Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazal, some contemporary works, and the accounts of foreign travellers.
2. Name any two sources of information of the land revenue system of Mughals.
Answer: Ain-i-Akbari and the accounts of foreign travellers.
3. What was a ‘Nasaq’?
Answer: Nasaq was a system of revenue assessment.
4. Describe the rates of land revenue imposed on the Banjar land.
Answer:
| Year | Rate |
|---|---|
| 1st | 1/26 |
| 2nd | 1/13 |
| 3rd | 1/13 |
| 4th | 3/13 |
| 5th | 1/3 |
5. Who were Muqaddams? What were their duties?
Answer: Muqaddams were village headmen. They helped the Amalguzar and his subordinates such as Potdars in the collection of revenue. They received 2.5 per cent as their commission.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Describe the nature and contents of the books Ain-i-Akbari.
Answer: Ain-i-Akbari, the third volume of the Akbarnamah by Abul Fazal, is essential for studying 16th and 17th-century Indian agrarian relations. Unlike the historical Akbar Nama, it details administrative rules, including information on Akbar’s government, social conditions, and various trades. It is divided into five books called Daftars, covering imperial establishments, common people, and cultural aspects. Edited by Henry Blochmann in 1873, it includes regulations, social conditions, and a unique administrative system that influenced future governance.
2. Describe the life led by the forest dwellers during the Mughal era in 16th-17th centuries.
Answer: Forest dwellers were integral to the Mughal economy, supplying elephants and other forest products. Commercial agriculture spread, increasing the demand for goods like honey and gum lac. Tribal chiefs became zamindars or kings, forming armies. The Ain-i-Akbari notes the transition from tribal to monarchical systems and the influence of Sufi saints in converting agricultural communities to Islam.
3. Describe the role played by women in agricultural production.
Answer: Women worked alongside men in agricultural tasks like sowing, weeding, and harvesting. They also engaged in artisanal work such as spinning and pottery. Despite biases, women were crucial due to their labor and reproductive roles. High mortality rates led to customs like bride-price and remarriage. Women in rural communities participated actively in production and sometimes controlled inherited property.
4. Describe the system of collection of land revenue introduced by Akbar.
Answer: Akbar’s Ain-i-Dahsala system, implemented by Raja Todar Mal, involved measuring and classifying land based on fertility. Land was categorized into Polaj, Parauti, Chachar, and Banjar. Revenue was assessed in cash, based on the average produce of three years, and collected by officials like Amils and Patwaris. The rate was fixed at one-third of the produce, ensuring fair and direct dealings with peasants.
5. How does the Ain-i-Akbari lay down the physical arrangements of the Mughal court? Explain.
Answer: Ain-i-Akbari describes Akbar’s court where a drum announces court sessions. Royal family, nobles, and officials attend, standing in designated places. Learned men and skilled artisans present their respects. Orders are given, and entertainment by gladiators, wrestlers, singers, and jugglers follows, showcasing the court’s organized and multifaceted nature.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. “Inspite of the limitations, the Ain-i-Akbari remains an extraordinary document of its time”. Explain the statement.
Answer: The Ain-i-Akbari, despite its limitations, remains an extraordinary document of its time due to several reasons. Firstly, it provides a detailed and comprehensive account of the administration, culture, and society of the Mughal Empire during Akbar’s reign. It covers various aspects such as the imperial household, military and civil administration, the revenue system, and the condition of peasants and artisans. Secondly, it offers valuable insights into the agrarian relations and the functioning of the rural economy, which are crucial for understanding the socio-economic structure of that period. The meticulous documentation and systematic presentation of information make it an indispensable source for historians. Furthermore, the Ain-i-Akbari reflects the enlightened policies of Akbar, showcasing his efforts to create a just and efficient administration. Despite some exaggerations and biases, the work’s richness in detail and the breadth of its coverage make it an extraordinary document.
2. Give the features of the work Ain-i-Akbari. Describe its importance.
Answer: The Ain-i-Akbari is characterized by its systematic and detailed presentation of the Mughal administration and society. Some of its notable features include:
- Detailed descriptions of the administrative divisions of the empire, including the names of provinces (subas), districts (sarkars), and subdivisions (parganas).
- Comprehensive accounts of the revenue system, including land measurement, classification of land, and rates of land revenue.
- Descriptions of the various departments of the state, such as the imperial household, military, judiciary, and revenue administration.
- Information on the socio-economic conditions of different classes of people, including peasants, artisans, and nobles.
- Insights into the cultural and religious life of the people, including festivals, rituals, and practices.
The importance of the Ain-i-Akbari lies in its role as a primary source for the study of Mughal India. It provides valuable information on the functioning of the Mughal administration and the socio-economic conditions of the time. The work is indispensable for historians and researchers studying the Mughal period, as it offers a wealth of data and insights into various aspects of life during Akbar’s reign.
3. Make an estimate of the land revenue system introduced by Akbar.
Answer: The land revenue system introduced by Akbar, known as the Ain-i-Dahsala or the ten-year settlement, was a significant reform that aimed at creating a fair and efficient method of revenue collection. The key features of this system include:
- Measurement of land: The land was measured using a standardized unit called the bigha, and a new type of bamboo measuring rod called the tanab was introduced to ensure accuracy.
- Classification of land: Land was classified into four categories based on its fertility and productivity – Polaj (continuously cultivated land), Parauti (land left fallow to regain fertility), Chachar (land left fallow for four years), and Banjar (land left uncultivated for more than five years).
- Assessment of revenue: The average produce of different types of land was calculated, and one-third of the average produce was fixed as the state’s share. This share could be paid in cash or kind.
- Periodic revision: The revenue rates were periodically revised to ensure that they reflected the current agricultural conditions and productivity levels.
The land revenue system introduced by Akbar was a major improvement over the earlier methods of revenue collection. It was based on careful measurement and classification of land, which ensured a more accurate and fair assessment of revenue. The system provided stability and predictability for peasants, as they knew in advance the amount of revenue they had to pay. Moreover, the periodic revision of revenue rates ensured that the system remained flexible and responsive to changing agricultural conditions.
4. Examine the role of Panchayats in the rural society of Mughal Empire.
Answer: Panchayats played a crucial role in the rural society of the Mughal Empire. They were local self-governing bodies that looked after the affairs of the village. The main features and functions of Panchayats include:
- Composition: Panchayats were typically composed of the elders and important people of the village, representing various castes and communities. However, village menials and agricultural workers were generally not represented.
- Leadership: Every Panchayat was headed by a headman, known as Muqaddam or Mandal. The headman was chosen through the consensus of the village elders and approved by the Zamindar. The headman supervised the preparation of village accounts and was assisted by the village accountant or Patwari.
- Judicial functions: Panchayats had the authority to settle disputes within the village, levy fines, and inflict punishments such as expulsion from the community. They ensured that caste boundaries were respected and maintained social order.
- Economic functions: The main source of income for the Panchayat was contributions made by individuals to a common financial pool. These funds were used for community welfare activities, such as entertaining revenue officials, constructing bunds or canals, and tiding over natural calamities like famines and floods.
- Social functions: Panchayats played a significant role in regulating social conduct and ensuring that community norms and values were upheld. They mediated in matters such as marriages and property disputes.
The Panchayats were an essential part of rural governance in the Mughal Empire, providing a level of local autonomy and ensuring the effective administration of village affairs. They played a vital role in maintaining social order, resolving disputes, and promoting community welfare.
5. Explain the role played by women of the imperial household in the Mughal Empire.
Answer: Women of the imperial household in the Mughal Empire played significant roles in both the domestic and political spheres. Some of the key aspects of their roles include:
- Domestic management: Women of the imperial household were responsible for managing the domestic affairs of the palace. This included overseeing the daily activities, ensuring the smooth functioning of the household, and maintaining the welfare of the family members.
- Influence in politics: Many women of the imperial household exercised considerable influence over political matters. They acted as advisors to the emperor and played crucial roles in decision-making processes. Their counsel was often sought on important state matters.
- Patronage of arts and culture: Women of the imperial household were great patrons of arts and culture. They supported and encouraged various forms of artistic expression, including painting, music, and literature. Their patronage contributed to the flourishing of Mughal art and culture.
- Social and charitable activities: These women were actively involved in social and charitable activities. They established and supported various charitable institutions, such as hospitals, schools, and orphanages, to help the needy and promote social welfare.
- Diplomatic roles: Women of the imperial household often played diplomatic roles, acting as intermediaries in negotiations and alliances. Their involvement in diplomatic matters helped strengthen political relationships and alliances.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Who wrote Ain-i-Akbari?
(a) Akbar
(b) Abul Fazl
(c) Jahangir
(d) (a) and (b) both
Answer: b. Abul Fazl
2. In the Mughal period, the Indian-Persian source referred to the farmers as:
(a) Ryot
(b) Zamindar
(c) Amin
(d) Taulqdar
Answer: a. Ryot
3. How many crops were grown in a year?
(a) 2
(b) 4
(c) 6
(d) None of the above
Answer: a. 2
4. Dalhan and Tilhan were crops of:
(a) Nakdi
(b) Kharif
(c) Rabi
(d) None of the above
Answer: b. Kharif
5. Why was Bengal famous?
(a) Sugar
(b) Cotton
(c) Maize
(d) Papaya
Answer: a. Sugar
Competency-Based Questions
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Match the following:
List I (Lands in Mughal Empire) (i) Polaj (A) Land always being cultivated
(ii) Parauti (B) Land fallow for three to four years
(iii) Chachhar (C) Land fallow a year
(iv) Banjar (D) Land uncultivated for five years
Options:
(a) (i)(A), (ii)(C), (iii)(B), (iv)(D)
(b) (i)(B), (ii)(C), (iii)(D), (iv)(A)
(c) (i)(C), (ii)(A), (iii)(D), (iv)(B)
(d) (i)(D), (ii)(C), (iii)(B), (iv)(A)
Answer: a. (i)(A), (ii)(C), (iii)(B), (iv)(D)
2. Consider the working conditions of the following farmers:
P : He owns a small piece of land in his village which he cultivates with his wife.
Q : She is a farmer who cultivates outside of her village as she earns more there.
R : He owns a large size land in his village and hires farmers to work in his fields.
S : He is a farmer who works on land outside of his village on a contractual basis.
Who among these would have been considered khud-kashta peasants in 17th-century India?
(a) both P and Q
(b) both R and S
(c) both P and R
(d) both Q and S
Answer: c. both P and R
3. Which of the following informations are correct about Ain-i-Akbari?
i. Written by Abdul Razi in Arabic language.
ii. Manzil-abadi, concerns the imperial household.
iii. Sipha-abadi, covers the military and civil administration.
iv. Mulk-abadi, deals with the fiscal side of the empire.
Options:
(a) II, III, and IV
(b) III, IV, and I
(c) IV, I, and II
(d) I, II, and III
Answer: a. II, III, and IV
4. Why did most people work in the agriculture sector during medieval India?
(a) The Mughals and other princely states during that time paid farmers the highest salaries.
(b) There were plenty of cultivable lands where food and non-food crops could be produced.
(c) According to caste rules, all members of the society needed to produce their own food.
(d) Unlike other professions at the time, farming was done by both men and women.
Answer: b. There were plenty of cultivable lands where food and non-food crops could be produced.
5. Which of the following statements is true about the reigns of Mughal emperors?
(i) Reign of Akbar (A) 1658 – 1707
(ii) Reign of Jahangir (B) 1628 – 1658
(iii) Reign of Shah Jahan (C) 1605 – 1627
(iv) Reign of Aurangzeb (D) 1556 – 1605
Options:
(a) (i)(A), (ii)(B), (iii)(C), (iv)(D)
(b) (i)(C), (ii)(A), (iii)(B), (iv)(D)
(c) (i)(D), (ii)(C), (iii)(B), (iv)(A)
(d) (i)(B), (ii)(C), (iii)(A), (iv)(D)
Answer: c. (i)(D), (ii)(C), (iii)(B), (iv)(A)
Case-based Questions
1. Read the following passage and answer the questions:
(i) How did the people come to know when Akbar held the court?
Answer: A large drum was beaten.
(ii) Who were present at his court?
Answer: His majesty’s son and grandchildren, the grandees of the court, all other men who have admittance, learned men of renown, skillful mechanics, officers of justice, skillful gladiators and wrestlers, singers, male and female, clever jugglers, and funny tumblers.
(iii) Who submitted reports to the emperor and what actions did the emperor take?
Answer: Officers of justice submitted their reports. The emperor, with his usual insights, gave orders and settled everything in a satisfactory manner.
2. Read the following case carefully and answer the questions that follow:
(i) How were the goods transported from the hills to the plains?
Answer: (d) All of these
(ii) Name the item sold by the hill tribes.
Answer: (d) Only (a)
(iii) What items were bought back by the hill tribes from the plains?
Answer: (d) All of these
(iv) Where in suba of Awadh in situated?
Answer: (a) Uttar Pradesh
Extra/additional MCQs
1. Who wrote the Ain-i-Akbari?
A. Babur
B. Abul Fazal
C. Akbar
D. Henry Blochmann
Answer: B. Abul Fazal
Q. In which year was the first volume of Ain-i-Akbari published by Henry Blochmann?
A. 1783
B. 1800
C. 1873
D. 1894
Answer: C. 1873
Q. How many books or Daftars make up the Ain-i-Akbari?
A. Three
B. Four
C. Five
D. Six
Answer: C. Five
Q. Which European traveller visited the court of Jahangir and gave an unfavourable picture of the Mughal Empire?
A. Peter Mundy
B. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier
C. Francois Bernier
D. Sir Thomas Roe
Answer: D. Sir Thomas Roe
Q. Who translated the third volume of Ain-i-Akbari in 1894?
A. Henry Blochmann
B. H.S. Jarrett
C. Gladwin
D. William Irvine
Answer: B. H.S. Jarrett
Q. Which historian wrote the Muntakhab-ul-Twarikh from an orthodox Sunni perspective?
A. Nizami
B. Badaoni
C. Firishta
D. Abdul Hamid Lahori
Answer: B. Badaoni
Q. Who is known for the work titled ‘History of the Muhammadan Power’?
A. Firishta
B. Niccolo Mannuci
C. Sujan Rai Khatri
D. Isardas Nagar
Answer: A. Firishta
Q. What is the name of the work written by Abdul Hamid Lahori covering the first 20 years of Shah Jahan’s reign?
A. Fatuhat-i-Alamgir
B. Khulasaat-ut-Tawarikh
C. Tarikh-i-Farishta
D. Padshahnama
Answer: D. Padshahnama
Q. Which work was authored by Sujan Rai Khatri and gives a summary of the reign of various kings up to Aurangzeb?
A. Khulasaat-ut-Tawarikh
B. Muntakhab-ul-Twarikh
C. Tarikh-i-Farishta
D. Fatuhat-i-Alamgir
Answer: A. Khulasaat-ut-Tawarikh
Q. Which European traveller’s observations concern the reigns of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb and wrote Storia de Mogor?
A. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier
B. Niccolo Mannuci
C. Peter Mundy
D. Francois Bernier
Answer: B. Niccolo Mannuci
Q. The Ain-i-Akbari provides detailed accounts of which Suba in Bengal?
A. Geography and history
B. Literature and law
C. Fauna and flora
D. All of the above
Answer: D. All of the above
Q. Which historian wrote Tabakat-i-Akbari, a straightforward chronicle of Akbar’s reign?
A. Firishta
B. Khwaja Nizamuddin Ahmad
C. Badaoni
D. Abul Fazal
Answer: B. Khwaja Nizamuddin Ahmad
Q. Who translated Niccolo Mannuci’s book Storia de Mogor into English?
A. H.S. Jarrett
B. William Irvine
C. Henry Blochmann
D. Gladwin
Answer: B. William Irvine
Q. The book Fatuhat-i-Alamgir records which Mughal emperor’s reign?
A. Akbar
B. Jahangir
C. Aurangzeb
D. Shah Jahan
Answer: C. Aurangzeb
Q. What was the main unit of production during the Mughal rule?
A. The family
B. The city
C. The village
D. The state
Answer: C. The village
Q. Who was regarded as the owner of the land according to Mughal law?
A. The peasant
B. The emperor
C. The Jagirdar
D. The Zamindar
Answer: B. The emperor
Q. What were the terms used for peasants in the Mughal period?
A. Zamindar and Jagirdar
B. Raiyat and Kisan
C. Mandal and Mugaddam
D. Rajput and Gaurava
Answer: B. Raiyat and Kisan
Q. What is the term for peasants who cultivated lands on a contractual basis?
A. Khud-Kashta
B. Pahi-Kashta
C. Asami
D. Raiyat
Answer: B. Pahi-Kashta
Q. How many acres of land made a peasant prosperous in Gujarat during the Mughal period?
A. Five acres
B. Six acres
C. Ten acres
D. Two acres
Answer: B. Six acres
Q. Which crop was introduced to India via Africa and Spain in the 17th century?
A. Maize
B. Wheat
C. Rice
D. Cotton
Answer: A. Maize
Q. What was the head of a village Panchayat known as?
A. Zamindar
B. Raiyat
C. Mugaddam or Mandal
D. Patwari
Answer: C. Mugaddam or Mandal
Q. What was the main source of income for the village Panchayat?
A. Taxes from the state
B. Contributions from individuals
C. Trade revenue
D. Agricultural produce
Answer: B. Contributions from individuals
Q. Which crops were considered Jins-i-Kamil (perfect crops) during the Mughal period?
A. Wheat and barley
B. Rice and maize
C. Cotton and sugar
D. Lentil and mustard
Answer: C. Cotton and sugar
Q. Who repaired the old canal (Shah Nahr) in Punjab during Shah Jahan’s rule?
A. Ali Mardan Khan
B. Abul Fazal
C. Badaoni
D. Firishta
Answer: A. Ali Mardan Khan
Q. How many varieties of crops did Ain-i-Akbari state were produced in Mughal provinces?
A. Thirty
B. Thirty-nine
C. Forty-three
D. Fifty
Answer: B. Thirty-nine
Q. What is the term used for the accountant of the village Panchayat?
A. Mugaddam
B. Mandal
C. Patwari
D. Zamindar
Answer: C. Patwari
Q. Which village community constituents were not represented in the village Panchayat?
A. Wealthy landowners
B. Cultivators
C. Village menials and agricultural workers
D. Elders
Answer: C. Village menials and agricultural workers
Q. What type of disputes did the Jati Panchayat settle in Rajasthan?
A. Criminal cases
B. Tax disputes
C. Civil disputes
D. Trade disputes
Answer: C. Civil disputes
Q. In which state were hereditary artisan land holdings called ‘miras or watan’?
A. Punjab
B. Maharashtra
C. Gujarat
D. Rajasthan
Answer: B. Maharashtra
Q. What was the term used for the system of payment where individual peasant households remunerated artisans in goods for services?
A. Jajmani system
B. Miras system
C. Zamindari system
D. Watan system
Answer: A. Jajmani system
Q. In which century did some British officials view the village as a “little republic”?
A. 16th century
B. 17th century
C. 18th century
D. 19th century
Answer: D. 19th century
Q. What was a common method of compensating village artisans for their services in the village economy?
A. Cash payment
B. Share of the harvest
C. Gold coins
D. Livestock
Answer: B. Share of the harvest
Q. Which community of people provided specialised services such as pottery, blacksmithing, and carpentry in the village economy?
A. Zamindars
B. Artisans
C. Merchants
D. Peasants
Answer: B. Artisans
Q. Which tasks were women specifically involved in within the agrarian society?
A. Tilling and ploughing
B. Sowing and weeding
C. Harvesting with machines
D. Building houses
Answer: B. Sowing and weeding
Q. In which regions of India were menstruating women not allowed to touch the plough or the potter’s wheel?
A. Western India and Bengal
B. Northern India and Gujarat
C. Eastern India and Punjab
D. Southern India and Karnataka
Answer: A. Western India and Bengal
Q. What type of payment system was prevalent in trade between villages and towns during the Mughal period?
A. Barter system
B. Jajmani system
C. Cash payment
D. Land grants
Answer: C. Cash payment
Q. What was the primary factor that affected the lives of those living in the forests during the Mughal period?
A. Cultural influences
B. Spread of commercial agriculture
C. Introduction of new religions
D. Decline in population
Answer: B. Spread of commercial agriculture
Q. What did the state receive from forest people for their use of the forest?
A. Taxes
B. Elephants
C. Timber
D. Gold
Answer: B. Elephants
Q. By which century had the transition from a tribal to a monarchical system fully developed in India?
A. 15th century
B. 16th century
C. 17th century
D. 18th century
Answer: B. 16th century
Q. What was a significant role of women in artisanal tasks?
A. Spinning yarns
B. Mining
C. Metalworking
D. Construction
Answer: A. Spinning yarns
Q. Which type of marriage custom was common among peasant and artisan communities?
A. Bride-price
B. Dowry
C. Arranged marriage
D. Elopement
Answer: A. Bride-price
Q. What type of land did the Zamindars control for personal use?
A. Watan
B. Milkiyat
C. Jajmani
D. Khidmat
Answer: B. Milkiyat
Q. Which system allowed the Zamindars to collect revenue on behalf of the state?
A. Jajmani system
B. Watan system
C. Zamindari system
D. Milkiyat system
Answer: C. Zamindari system
Q. In which century did the export of forest products like gum and lac begin?
A. 15th century
B. 16th century
C. 17th century
D. 18th century
Answer: C. 17th century
Q. Who was the first Muslim ruler to make a systematic land survey?
A. Babur
B. Humayun
C. Sher Shah
D. Akbar
Answer: C. Sher Shah
Q. During which ruler’s reign were Jagirs abolished, and the entire empire divided into 182 parganas?
A. Babur
B. Humayun
C. Sher Shah
D. Akbar
Answer: D. Akbar
Q. In which year was Todarmal appointed to the office of Diwan-i-Ashraf?
A. 1572
B. 1575
C. 1582
D. 1587
Answer: C. 1582
Q. Under Akbar’s revenue reforms, how often was the land assessment fixed?
A. Every year
B. Every five years
C. Every seven years
D. Every ten years
Answer: D. Every ten years
Q. Which measuring unit did Akbar introduce to replace Sher Shah’s hemp rope?
A. Jari
B. Tanab
C. Bigha
D. Gaz
Answer: B. Tanab
Q. How many classes of land were classified under Akbar’s revenue system?
A. Two
B. Three
C. Four
D. Five
Answer: C. Four
Q. Which type of land was annually cultivated and never allowed to be fallow?
A. Polaj
B. Parati
C. Chachar
D. Banjar
Answer: A. Polaj
Q. In the case of Chachar land, what was the state demand in the first year of cultivation?
A. 1/10
B. 1/15
C. 1/13
D. 1/3
Answer: B. 1/15
Q. What percentage of the total produce was the peasant required to pay under Sher Shah’s system?
A. One third
B. One fourth
C. One fifth
D. One sixth
Answer: B. One fourth
Q. Who was responsible for reorganizing the revenue system under Akbar with the help of Todarmal?
A. Abdul Majid Khan
B. Muzaffar Khan Turbati
C. Khawaja Abdul Majid
D. S.M. Jaffar
Answer: B. Muzaffar Khan Turbati
Q. How many Qanungos were appointed to collect data relating to revenue matters under Akbar?
A. Five
B. Ten
C. Fifteen
D. Twenty
Answer: B. Ten
Q. What was the assessment rate for Banjar land in the second year of cultivation?
A. 1/10
B. 1/13
C. 2/13
D. 1/3
Answer: C. 2/13
Q. What was the average yield per bigha used for assessing revenue from the first two classes of land under Akbar’s system?
A. 30 maunds
B. 45 maunds
C. 60 maunds
D. 75 maunds
Answer: B. 45 maunds
Q. Who wrote the Ain-i-Akbari, which details Akbar’s revenue reforms?
A. Abul Fazal
B. Todarmal
C. Abdul Majid Khan
D. Muzaffar Khan Turbati
Answer: A. Abul Fazal
Q. What type of rope did Sher Shah use for land measurement?
A. Hemp rope
B. Bamboo rope
C. Cotton rope
D. Jute rope
Answer: A. Hemp rope
Q. When was the aggregate collection formed according to Abul Fazal in the Ain-i-Akbari?
A. From the 15th to the 24th year of the Divine Era
B. From the 10th to the 20th year of the Divine Era
C. From the 5th to the 15th year of the Divine Era
D. From the 20th to the 30th year of the Divine Era
Answer: A. From the 15th to the 24th year of the Divine Era
Q. What system of land settlement was prevalent in Subas like Bihar, Allahabad, and Multan?
A. Gallabaksh
B. Nasq
C. Zabti
D. Ryotwari
Answer: C. Zabti
Q. How often was the revenue collected according to the text?
A. Once a year
B. Twice a year
C. Every quarter
D. Every month
Answer: B. Twice a year
Q. What commission did the village headman (Muqaddam) receive for helping in revenue collection?
A. 1%
B. 1.5%
C. 2%
D. 2.5%
Answer: D. 2.5%
Q. In which regions did the Gallabaksh system prevail during Akbar’s reign?
A. Agra and Delhi
B. Thatta and parts of Kabul and Kashmir
C. Lahore and Gujarat
D. Bihar and Awadh
Answer: B. Thatta and parts of Kabul and Kashmir
Q. Who helped the Amalguzar in the collection of revenue?
A. Potdar and Qanungo
B. Muqaddam and Patwari
C. Bitikchi and Patwari
D. Muqaddam and Potdar
Answer: D. Muqaddam and Potdar
Q. What was the role of the Patwari during revenue collection?
A. Assisting the Amil
B. Issuing detailed receipts
C. Collecting taxes
D. Fixing cash rates
Answer: B. Issuing detailed receipts
Q. Which traveler provided an account of how silver reached India in the late 17th century?
A. Giovanni Careri
B. Marco Polo
C. Ibn Battuta
D. Vasco da Gama
Answer: A. Giovanni Careri
Q. Which Mughal ruler first started relief measures for famine-stricken areas?
A. Aurangzeb
B. Shah Jahan
C. Jahangir
D. Akbar
Answer: D. Akbar
Q. When did the severe famine occur during Shah Jahan’s reign?
A. 1551-1556
B. 1573-1574
C. 1585-1588
D. 1630-1631
Answer: D. 1630-1631
Q. What system replaced the Zabti system in Aurangzeb’s time?
A. Gallabaksh
B. Nasq
C. Batai
D. Kankut
Answer: B. Nasq
Q. What was the standard price of wheat in Lahore determined by during Akbar’s reign?
A. The previous year’s price
B. The current year’s price
C. The last ten years’ average price
D. The highest price in the last decade
Answer: C. The last ten years’ average price
Q. What percentage of the gross produce did the Mughal government charge for land revenue?
A. 20-30%
B. 30-40%
C. 33.33%
D. 40-50%
Answer: C. 33.33%
Q. Which method determined the state’s share through a rough estimate of standing crops?
A. Batai
B. Kankut
C. Nasq
D. Zabti
Answer: B. Kankut
72. Who was the revenue collector under Akbar’s administration?
A. Amil
B. Muqaddam
C. Potdar
D. Qanungo
Answer: A. Amil
Extra/additional questions and answers
1. What is the main source of information about the structure of agrarian relations from the time of Akbar onwards?
Answer: The main source of information about the structure of agrarian relations from the time of Akbar onwards is the Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazal.
Q. What is Ain-i-Akbari?
Answer: Ain-i-Akbari is the third volume of the Akbarnamah by Abul Fazal, which embodies aims or rules framed and put into effect for proper administration by Akbar. It is like a modern gazetteer and more than a reproduction of official papers.
Q. How many times was the manuscript of Ain-i-Akbari revised by Abul Fazal?
Answer: The manuscript of Ain-i-Akbari was revised by Abul Fazal five times.
Q. Who edited and published Ain-i-Akbari and when?
Answer: Ain-i-Akbari was edited by Henry Blochmann and published by the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta (Kolkata) in 1873.
Q. What kind of information does Ain-i-Akbari provide?
Answer: Ain-i-Akbari provides information about Akbar’s government departments, different ranks, people engaged in different trades, imperial establishments, nobles, grandees, imperial officials, and mansabdars of the empire. It also discusses social conditions, literature, law, philosophy, and gives accounts of distinguished travellers, Muslim saints, and Sufis, as well as a collection of Akbar’s auspicious sayings.
Q. How is the account of Suba of Bengal divided in Ain-i-Akbari?
Answer: The account of Suba of Bengal in Ain-i-Akbari is divided into different parts. The first part gives the history and geography of the Suba. The second part discusses agriculture, industrial products, fauna, and flora of the 19 Sarkars into which the Suba of Bengal was divided.
Q. What is the significance of the geographical survey and statistical details in Ain-i-Akbari?
Answer: The geographical survey and statistical details of each province, particularly of Bengal, in Ain-i-Akbari are significant for understanding the Mughal empire’s administrative system. The book serves as a guide or government gazette for Mughal administrators and provides a unique compilation of rules for the administration and control over all government departments during Akbar’s reign.
Q. What are the limitations of Ain-i-Akbari according to historians?
Answer: Historians point out several limitations of Ain-i-Akbari:
- The summarised versions of the history of rulers of ancient and Mughal periods, including Bengal, are not very dependable.
- Data were not collected uniformly from all provinces.
- The detailed list of prices and wages mainly pertains to areas in and around the imperial capital of Agra.
- There are numerous minor errors in totalling.
Q. Who translated the volumes of Ain-i-Akbari and when were they published?
Answer: Volume I of Ain-i-Akbari was published by Henry Blochmann from Calcutta in 1873, the second volume in 1891, and the third volume was translated by H.S. Jarrett in 1894.
Q. What other sources provide contemporary accounts of the structure of agrarian relations during the 16th and 17th centuries in India?
Answer: Other sources include:
- Khwaja Nizamuddin Ahmad’s Tabakat-i-Akbari.
- Mulla Abul Qadir Badaoni’s Muntakhab-ul-Twarikh.
- Muhammad Kasim Firishta’s Tarikh-i-Farishta.
- Abdul Hamid Lahori’s Padshahnama.
- Mirza Amin Qazvini’s Padshahnama.
- Isardas Nagar’s Fatuhat-i-Alamgir.
- Sujan Rai Khatri’s Khulasaat-ut-Tawarikh.
Q. Who was Sir Thomas Roe and what did he document?
Answer: Sir Thomas Roe was an early traveller who visited the court of Jahangir. He documented an unfavourable picture of the Mughal Empire and provided an interesting account of court factions.
Q. What did Peter Mundy describe in his account?
Answer: Peter Mundy provided a detailed account of the Mughal administrative system, some of which was imaginary while some resembled actual facts. He visited numerous towns in India and described peculiar socio-religious customs of the Hindus.
Q. Who was Francois Bernier and what is notable about his writings?
Answer: Francois Bernier was a French physician and highly educated man who obtained information about the Mughal court and its life from many sources. He described the tyranny of Mughal governors and the evils of despotic government, although his conclusions are not supported by other contemporary writers.
Q. What is Jean-Baptiste Tavernier known for?
Answer: Jean-Baptiste Tavernier is known for his work which is important for the commercial history of the period, and his descriptions of Delhi, Agra, and Kashmir.
Q. What was Niccolo Mannuci’s contribution to historical accounts?
Answer: Niccolo Mannuci wrote his book Storia de Mogor in Italian, later translated into English by William Irvine. His observations mainly concern the reigns of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. While useful, his work is not considered a very valuable authority.
Q. What was the main source of income for the people during the 16th and 17th centuries in India?
Answer: Agriculture was the main source of income for the people during the 16th and 17th centuries in India.
Q. What was the basic unit of production during the Mughal rule in India?
Answer: The village was the basic unit of production during the Mughal rule in India.
Q. How was the concept of land ownership perceived during the Mughal period?
Answer: During the Mughal period, the emperor was regarded as the owner of the land by law, but peasants had the undisputed right of possession of their cultivated land as long as they paid a share of their produce to the Jagirdar or revenue collectors.
Q. Who were the Khud-Kashta peasants?
Answer: Khud-Kashta peasants were residents of the village in which they held their lands.
Q. Who were the Pahi-Kashta peasants?
Answer: Pahi-Kashta peasants were non-resident cultivators who belonged to some other village but cultivated lands elsewhere on a contractual basis. They became Pahi-Kashta either out of choice, due to better revenue terms, or out of compulsion, due to economic troubles after a famine.
Q. What were the four necessary factors for the expansion of agriculture?
Answer: The four necessary factors for the expansion of agriculture were the abundance of land, irrigation facilities, availability of labour, and the mobility of the peasants.
Q. How did the state support irrigation projects during the Mughal period?
Answer: The state supported irrigation projects by digging new canals and repairing old ones, such as the Shahnahr in Punjab, which was repaired by Ali Mardan Khan during the rule of emperor Shah Jahan.
Q. What technology did the peasants use for agriculture during the Mughal period?
Answer: Peasants used a wooden plough with an iron tip or sharp blade for ploughing, a drill pulled by a pair of oxen for planting seeds, and narrow iron blades with small wooden handles for hoeing and weeding.
Q. What were the major crops produced during the Mughal period?
Answer: The major crops produced during the Mughal period were Kharif (autumn) and Rabi (spring) crops. There were also many varieties of produce, such as cotton, sugar, oilseeds, maize, tomatoes, potatoes, chillies, pineapple, and papaya.
Q. What were Jins-i-Kamil crops and where were they grown?
Answer: Jins-i-Kamil crops, meaning perfect crops, included cotton and sugar. Cotton was grown in Central India and the Deccan plateau, while Bengal was famous for the production of sugar.
Q. Who were the three constituents of the village community during the Mughal period?
Answer: The three constituents of the village community during the Mughal period were the cultivators, the Panchayats, and the village headmen (Mugaddams or mandals).
Q. How did caste distinctions affect rural society during the Mughal period?
Answer: Caste distinctions created deep inequalities in rural society. Certain caste groups were assigned menial tasks, making them poor and marginalised, similar to the Dalits in modern India. Menials in Muslim communities, such as scavengers and sons of boatmen, were made to live outside village boundaries and were treated like slaves.
Q. What was the role of village Panchayats in Mughal society?
Answer: Village Panchayats managed village affairs, comprised elders with hereditary property rights, and represented various castes and communities (excluding menials and agricultural workers). They made binding decisions, supervised village accounts, and ensured caste boundaries were maintained. They also performed judicial functions, levying fines and inflicting punishments.
Q. What were Jati Panchayats and their functions?
Answer: Jati Panchayats were caste-based councils with significant power in rural society. They settled civil disputes, mediated land claims, ensured marriages followed caste rules, and their decisions were respected by the state, except in criminal cases.
Q. How did villagers address unjust taxes and demands during the Mughal period?
Answer: Villagers from lower classes often sent petitions to the Panchayat, collectively protesting unjust taxes or unpaid labour demands by elite groups or officials. The Panchayat served as a court of appeal for justice. In cases of excessive revenue demands, Panchayats suggested compromises or peasants deserted villages in protest.
Q: What is a significant characteristic of the village artisans’ services?
Answer: The village artisans provided specialised services to the villagers and were compensated for their services by the people by a variety of means. In the village economy, the common method of doing so was to give them a share of the harvest, or an allotment of some land, perhaps cultivable wastes. In Maharashtra, such lands were artisans’ hereditary holdings called ‘miras or watan’.
Q: How did the British officials in the nineteenth century view the village?
Answer: In the nineteenth century, some British officials saw the village as a “little republic” made up of fraternal partners, sharing resources and labour commonly. However, this was not a sign of rural egalitarianism. There existed individual ownership of assets and inequalities based on caste and gender distinctions. There were powerful groups of individuals who decided the affairs of the village, exploited the down-trodden, and had the authority to administer justice.
Q: What roles did men and women play in the agricultural process in medieval India?
Answer: Men and women performed certain specified functions in the process of agricultural production. Men tilled and ploughed the land, while women sowed, weeded, threshed, and winnowed the harvest. The basis of agricultural production was the labour and resources of the entire household, making a gendered segregation between the home and the world not possible in this context. Despite this, biases related to women’s biological functions continued, such as menstruating women being prohibited from touching the plough or potter’s wheel, or entering fields where betel-leaves were grown.
Q: What are some tasks women performed in artisanal work?
Answer: Women played an important role in artisanal tasks such as spinning yarns, sifting and kneading clay for pottery, and embroidery. As products became more commercialized, the demand on women’s labour increased. Peasant and artisan women worked not only in the fields but also went to the houses of their employers or to the markets if necessary.
Q: How did the high mortality rate among women affect social customs?
Answer: The high mortality rate among women, owing to malnutrition or deaths during childbirth, led to a shortage of women. This shortage led to the growth of social customs in peasant and artisan communities that were different from those among elite groups. Marriages in many rural communities required the payment of bride-price rather than dowry to the bride’s family, and remarriage was allowed both among divorced and widowed women.
Q: What was the state’s view on forests during the medieval period?
Answer: The state considered forests a place of refuge for troublemakers. Babur wrote that the jungles provided a good defense behind which the people of the Pargana became stubbornly rebellious and paid no taxes.
Q: How did outsiders interact with forest regions?
Answer: Outsiders entered forests in different ways. The state needed elephants for the army, and the Peshkash received from forest people often included a specified number of elephants. The Mughal rulers thought that hunting symbolised a great concern of the state to ensure justice to all subjects. Regular hunting expeditions allowed the emperor to travel across a large part of his empire and personally hear the complaints of its inhabitants.
Q: What was the impact of commercial agriculture on forest people?
Answer: The spread of commercial agriculture significantly impacted forest people. Forest products like honey, beeswax, and gum lac were in great demand, and in the seventeenth century, items such as gum and lac began to be exported from India. Elephants were also captured from the forests and sold in the plains. The shift to commercial agriculture led to increased interactions between forest people and outside markets.
Q: What social changes affected the lives of forest tribes?
Answer: Social changes, such as the rise of influential tribal chiefs to the status of zamindars or even kings, significantly affected the lives of forest tribes. These chiefs built up armies, recruited people from their lineage groups, and asked their fraternity to provide military service. The transition from a tribal to a monarchical system had fully developed by the sixteenth century.
Q: What cultural influences affected forest zones?
Answer: New cultural influences, including the role of Sufi saints, affected forest zones. Scholars believe that Sufi saints played a significant role in the conversion of agricultural communities to Islam in newly colonized areas.
Q: Who were the Zamindars?
Answer: The Zamindars were a class of landowners who lived off agriculture but did not take part in the process of agricultural production. They enjoyed certain social and economic privileges due to their superior status in rural society and performed some services (Khidmats) for the rulers. They owned extensive personal lands called Milkiyat, which were cultivated by hired or servile labour. Zamindars had the right to sell, bequeath, or mortgage their personal lands at will.
Q: What were the sources of power for the Zamindars?
Answer: The Zamindars’ power came from several sources:
- They could collect revenue on behalf of the state and were compensated financially for this service.
- They controlled military resources, with most Zamindars having fortresses (qilachas) and armed contingents, including units of infantry, cavalry, and artillery.
- They owned extensive personal lands (Milkiyat), which were cultivated by hired or servile labour, and the produce was for their personal use.
- They were able to sell, bequeath, or mortgage their personal lands at will.
Q: How did some people become Zamindars?
Answer: Some people became Zamindars through various processes, such as colonisation of new lands, transfer of rights by state orders, and purchase. Powerful military chiefs often dispossessed weaker sections of society of their lands, expanding the Zamindari system. These processes sometimes allowed people of lower castes to become Zamindars, as Zamindaris were frequently bought and sold during this period.
Q: What methods did the Zamindars use to consolidate their power?
Answer: Zamindars consolidated their power through:
- Colonisation of agricultural land and settling cultivators by providing means of cultivation and cash loans.
- Establishing markets (hatts) where peasants also came to sell their produce.
- Exploiting cultivators while maintaining elements of reciprocity, paternalism, and patronage in their relationships with them.
- Engaging in the purchase and sale of Zamindaris, which accelerated monetisation in rural areas.
Q: What is the significance of the Bhakti saints in the context of Zamindars?
Answer: The Bhakti saints played a significant role in condemning caste-based and other forms of oppression. They generally targeted the revenue officials of the state rather than the Zamindars. In many agrarian uprisings in north India during the seventeenth century, Zamindars often had the support of the peasantry in their struggle against the state, indicating a complex relationship marked by elements of reciprocity and paternalism.
Q: Who were the first Muslim rulers to make systematic land surveys?
Answer: The first Muslim rulers to make systematic land surveys were Sher Shah and Akbar.
Q: What did Babur and Humayun continue to use from the Pathan kings?
Answer: Babur and Humayun continued to raise land revenue through Jagirdars.
Q: What significant reform did Akbar introduce in the land measurement system?
Answer: Akbar introduced a new type of ‘Tanab,’ a Jarib of bamboo with two iron rings on both sides, and fixed a yard of 41 digits for land measurement. This was a shift from Sher Shah’s measuring yard of 32 digits. Akbar’s new measurement system included a separate record of pastures, jungles, and lakes, and revenue officers were ordered not to charge any commission for measurement but were paid by the government at the rate of one dam per bigha.
Q: What were the four classes of land according to Ain-i-Akbari?
Answer:
- Polaj: Annually cultivated for each crop in succession and never allowed to lie fallow.
- Parati: Occasionally left fallow to recover its strength.
- Chachar: Allowed to remain fallow for about four years to recuperate.
- Banjar: Remained out of cultivation for more than five years.
Q: How did Akbar’s administration deal with corrupt officers?
Answer: Officers in charge of the parganas, called Karories, who were found guilty and corrupt were severely punished by Todarmal. There is no mention of them in the Ain-i-Akbari, which suggests that either their office was abolished or they ceased to exist at that time.
Q: What was the impact of Akbar’s revenue reforms on the agrarian structure of the empire?
Answer: Akbar’s revenue reforms marked a new era in land settlement and administration. Under Todarmal’s guidance, a thorough reorganization of the revenue system was undertaken. This included the measurement of land, fixing of assessments based on detailed surveys, and the classification of land into different categories based on fertility. The reforms aimed to make the system fairer and more efficient, reducing the peasants’ complaints about excessive exactions and balancing the grievances of landholders. The reforms also sought to eliminate the variable demands caused by yearly assessments by averaging assessments over ten years, providing a more stable and predictable system for revenue collection.
Q: What did Todarmal’s reforms include according to Ain-i-Akbari?
Answer: Todarmal’s reforms included the thorough reorganization of the revenue system, measurement of land using a new type of Tanab, classification of land into four categories (Polaj, Parati, Chachar, and Banjar), and fixing of assessments based on detailed surveys and average produce per bigha. Additionally, it involved paying revenue officers by the government and ensuring no commissions were charged to peasants. These reforms aimed to remove the difficulties caused by yearly assessments and provide a stable revenue system for the empire.
Q: What changes were made to the revenue assessment for Chachar and Banjar lands?
Answer:
- For Chachar lands:
- 1st year: 1/15
- 2nd year: 2/15
- 3rd year: 3/15
- 4th year: 4/15
- 5th year: 1/3
- For Banjar lands:
- 1st year: 1/26
- 2nd year: 1/13
- 3rd year: 2/13
- 4th year: 3/13
- 5th year: 1/3
Q: What was the role of Karories in Akbar’s administration?
Answer: Karories were officers in charge of parganas who were responsible for revenue collection and management. They were expected to manage the lands and ensure revenue was collected efficiently. However, many were found to be guilty and corrupt, leading to severe punishment by Todarmal. The Ain-i-Akbari does not mention them, which indicates that their office might have been abolished or they had ceased to exist due to their corrupt practices.
Q: What did Sher Shah introduce for land measurement?
Answer: Sher Shah introduced the ‘Jari’ of hemp rope for land measurement. However, this method allowed officers to manipulate the measurements easily.
Q: How were the different grades of land determined under Akbar’s system?
Answer: The first two classes of land (Polaj and Parati) were divided into three grades: good, middling, and bad, based on fertility. The average produce per bigha was estimated by adding the yields from these three grades and using a third of this medium produce as the basis for assessment. The other two classes (Chachar and Banjar) were treated separately due to their lower fertility and yield. This system ensured that the peasant was not unfairly assessed.
Q: What principles did Todarmal lay down to fix the assessment of revenue?
Answer: Todarmal laid down the principle of fixing the assessment for ten years by averaging the collections of ten years, specifically from the 15th to the 24th years of Akbar’s reign. This system aimed to remove the difficulties caused by yearly assessments, ensuring a stable and predictable revenue demand. The assessment was based on the best crops taken into account each year and the year of the most abundant yield was considered. This method provided contentment among the people and manifested their gratitude.
Q: What was the rate of payment for revenue officers for land measurement?
Answer: Revenue officers were paid by the government at the rate of one dam per bigha for land measurement and were ordered not to charge any commission.
Q. What was the old practice for commuting state demand in kind to cash?
Answer: The old practice was to commute the produce into cash rates according to the prices current at that time.
Q. How did Todar Mal solve the difficulty of commuting produce into cash?
Answer: Todar Mal’s solution was to fix cash rates on the average of ten years’ actuals.
Q. When were the revenue collections conducted each year?
Answer: The revenue was collected twice a year, first at the time when the Rabi crop was harvested and secondly when the Kharif crop was ready.
Q. Who helped the Amalguzar and his subordinates in the collection of revenue?
Answer: The village headman, called Muqaddam, helped the Amalguzar and his subordinates in the collection.
Q. What percentage of commission did the Muqaddam receive?
Answer: The Muqaddam received 2.5% as his commission.
Q. What were the general instructions of the Emperor to the revenue officer during collection?
Answer: The general instructions were first to collect the arrears and then the demand of the season, and to deal kindly with the cultivators without extending the hand of demand out of season.
Q. How was fraud and corruption prevented among revenue officials?
Answer: Adequate safeguards were provided to prevent fraud and corruption, and the highest officials of the crown were honest. The vigilant eye of Todarmal watched every detail of the management with meticulous care. Exactions and extortions were severely punished.
Q. What were some systems of land revenue mentioned in the document?
Answer: The systems mentioned include Gallabaksh, Zabti, Nasq, Batai or Bhaoili, and Kankut.
Q. How did the state assist peasants during times of drought under Akbar’s rule?
Answer: In times of drought, advances were made to the cultivators, public works were constructed to afford relief to the poor, and remissions were also made. Grain was supplied free from the imperial granaries during famines.
Q. What is the Ain-i-Akbari?
Answer: The Ain-i-Akbari is a document written by Abul Fazal that provides detailed information about the revenue system and various administrative measures during Akbar’s reign.
Q. What was the most enduring glory of the Akbarian Age according to S.M. Jaffar?
Answer: The revenue system organized by Akbar was the most enduring glory of the Akbarian Age, as it benefitted both the state and the peasantry, preventing fluctuations in land revenue and fraud by fixing the state’s share forever.
Q. How did the condition of the peasantry under British rule compare to that under Mughal rule?
Answer: Under British rule, the burden of land revenue was much higher than under Mughal rule. The Mughal government charged one-third of the produce, while the British rule demanded 40 to 50 percent of the gross produce.
Q. What happened to the Zabti system during the reign of Akbar’s successors?
Answer: During Akbar’s successors’ reigns, the Zabti system saw a decline. Jahangir continued with Akbar’s system but did not enforce regulations strictly. Shah Jahan’s revival of the Jagir system and Aurangzeb’s time saw the breakdown of Zabti arrangements, with increased misuse by revenue officials and general discontent among the peasantry.
Q. Describe the impact of silver bullion on India during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Answer: The influx of silver bullion into India during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, resulting from increased trade with Europe, was highly beneficial. India did not have natural silver resources, so the increased availability of metal currency, especially the silver rupya, facilitated coin minting and money circulation. This, in turn, enhanced the Mughal state’s ability to collect taxes and revenue in cash from its subjects and tributary states. Giovanni Careri’s account highlights the scale of cash and commodity transactions in seventeenth-century India.
Q. How did Akbar handle famine relief during his reign?
Answer: Akbar was the first ruler to start relief measures for famine-stricken areas. An officer was appointed to manage relief efforts, and grain was supplied free from the imperial granaries. State hospitals and alms-houses were established for the sick and poor, and large Khangahs further helped in the administration of relief. Despite the great and alarming horrors of famine due to imperfect means of communication and transportation, the Mughal government was committed to mitigating the calamity’s impact on the populace.
Q. What were the key aspects of Akbar’s revenue system that benefitted the peasantry?
Answer: Key aspects included the following:
- Remissions were given during famines or bad harvests.
- Taqavi loans were provided to purchase seeds, cattle, and agricultural implements, repayable in easy installments.
- Compensation was paid for crops destroyed by soldiers during their march.
- The burden of land revenue was lower than during British rule.
- The cost of living was low, and the peasant lived under better conditions with a low assessment and organized administration.
- Strict safeguards and vigilant oversight by Todarmal ensured minimal fraud and corruption, with severe punishments for exactions and extortions.
- Akbar’s system benefited both the state and the peasantry, enriching the imperial treasury and increasing peasants’ prosperity.
Q. How did the Nasq system differ from the Zabti system?
Answer: The Nasq system was a Ryotwari arrangement with no intermediaries between the Ryot and the state. It prevailed in provinces like Bengal, Berar, and Kashmir. Unlike the Zabti system, which involved detailed organization and direct state relations with cultivators, the Nasq system became common during Aurangzeb’s reign, involving rough estimates and cursory surveys for land revenue, leading to misuse by officials and peasant discontent.
Q. What were some critical estimates of Akbar’s land settlement system?
Answer: Critics like Moreland and V.A. Smith viewed the system as detrimental to peasants, but these views were rejected by scholars like Prof. Brij Narain, Prof. S.R. Sharma, and Dr. Ishwari Prasad. They argued that Akbar’s system provided for peasant welfare through remissions, loans, and compensation. They also noted that the burden of land revenue was lower under Mughal rule compared to British rule, with effective safeguards against corruption, and overall, the system enhanced peasants’ prosperity.
77. How did Shah Jahan’s reign affect the revenue system established by Akbar?
Answer: Shah Jahan’s reign saw significant changes in the revenue system. He abolished some illegal cesses and constructed canals for irrigation, reflecting concern for agriculturists’ welfare. However, the revival of the Jagir system reduced the extent of Khalsa lands and increased state demand to about one-half of the produce. Group assessment became common, increasing the peasants’ burden as they paid for both cultivated and occupied land, raising the land revenue to 400 million rupees.
