Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: AHSEC Class 12 History notes

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Get summaries, questions, answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF and guide of Class 12 (second year) History textbook, chapter 6 Bhakti-Sufi Traditions which is part of the syllabus of students studying under AHSEC/ASSEB (Assam Board). These solutions, however, should only be treated as references and can be modified/changed. 

Summary

The chapter describes the evolution of religious beliefs and practices in India from the eighth to the eighteenth century. It highlights how new traditions developed through interactions between different faiths, particularly within the Bhakti and Sufi movements. These traditions often challenged established religious norms, making spiritual practices more accessible to common people.

The chapter begins by explaining how religious structures such as temples, stupas, and monasteries spread across the subcontinent. Alongside these, devotional literature became a significant source for understanding beliefs. The compositions of poet-saints, often sung in regional languages, were preserved by their followers and adapted over time. Hagiographies, or biographies of saints, provide insight into how these figures were perceived by their devotees.

A key theme is the integration of different religious traditions. The worship of major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and various goddesses continued, but their forms and practices changed as they merged with local beliefs. The Puranas, composed in simple Sanskrit, were made more accessible to women and lower castes. At the same time, Brahmins incorporated local deities into mainstream traditions. The worship of Jagannatha in Puri is an example of this, where a local deity was identified as a form of Vishnu. The goddess cults also followed a similar pattern, with local goddesses being associated with well-known female deities.

The chapter also discusses conflicts between different religious beliefs. Vedic traditions often opposed newer forms of worship, such as those associated with Tantrism, which allowed more inclusive practices. Devotees of Vishnu and Shiva sometimes rejected each other’s beliefs, while tensions existed between Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.

The Bhakti movement emerged as a response to these religious shifts. It emphasized direct devotion to a personal deity, often rejecting caste barriers. The Alvars, devoted to Vishnu, and the Nayanars, devoted to Shiva, were among the earliest Bhakti saints in Tamil Nadu. They expressed their devotion through hymns and rejected rigid social hierarchies. Some Bhakti saints, such as Andal and Karaikkal Ammaiyar, were women who challenged patriarchal norms.

Bhakti traditions in Karnataka were shaped by the Virashaivas, followers of Basavanna. They rejected caste discrimination, opposed Brahmanical rituals, and believed in a direct connection with Shiva. Their teachings, recorded in vachanas, were written in Kannada.

In northern India, Bhakti saints such as Kabir, Guru Nanak, and Mirabai continued these traditions. Kabir rejected religious divisions between Hindus and Muslims, emphasizing devotion to one formless God. Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, also promoted devotion beyond religious rituals, encouraging worship through meditation and hymns. Mirabai, a Rajput princess, abandoned her royal life to devote herself to Krishna.

Sufism, a mystical branch of Islam, also spread across India during this time. Sufi saints emphasized love for God and direct spiritual experience over rigid religious laws. Sufi orders, known as silsilas, developed throughout the subcontinent, with khanqahs serving as centers of learning and worship. The Chishti order was particularly influential, promoting inclusivity and spiritual devotion through poetry and music.

Rulers often sought alliances with Bhakti and Sufi saints to gain legitimacy. The Chola kings in Tamil Nadu built temples to honor Bhakti saints, while Mughal emperors such as Akbar visited Sufi shrines, offering gifts to gain their blessings. Despite their spiritual ideals, many Sufi and Bhakti leaders had indirect ties to political power.

The chapter concludes by discussing how historians reconstruct religious traditions using different sources, including poetry, architecture, and historical records. These traditions continue to shape religious practices in India today.

Textbook solutions

Answer in 100-150 words

1. Explain with examples what historians mean by the integration of cults.

Answer: Historians suggest that the integration of cults involved two processes. One was the dissemination of Brahmanical ideas, seen in the composition, compilation, and preservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit to make them accessible to women and Shudras, who were generally excluded from Vedic learning. The second process involved Brahmanas accepting and reworking the beliefs and practices of various social groups. This integration resulted from a dialogue between what sociologists call “great” Sanskritic Puranic traditions and “little” local traditions. An example of this process is seen in Puri, Orissa, where by the twelfth century, the principal deity was identified as Jagannatha, a form of Vishnu. Similarly, local goddesses, often worshipped as stones smeared with ochre, were incorporated into the Puranic framework as wives of major deities like Vishnu and Shiva​.

2. To what extent do you think the architecture of mosques in the subcontinent reflects a combination of universal ideals and local traditions?

Answer: The architecture of mosques in the subcontinent reflects a combination of universal ideals and local traditions. Some architectural features of mosques are universal, such as their orientation towards Mecca, evident in the placement of the mihrab (prayer niche) and the minbar (pulpit). However, there are several features that show variations, such as roofs and building materials. For example, a mosque in Kerala from the thirteenth century has a shikhara-like roof, blending local temple architectural elements with Islamic structural requirements. The Shah Hamadan mosque in Srinagar, built in 1395, showcases Kashmiri wooden architecture, with a spire and beautifully carved eaves, and is decorated with papier-mâché. These examples illustrate how local architectural traditions merged with Islamic principles to create a distinct style of mosque architecture in the subcontinent​.

3. What were the similarities and differences between the be-shari‘a and ba-shari‘a sufi traditions?

Answer: The be-shari‘a and ba-shari‘a sufi traditions differed primarily in their adherence to Islamic law (shari‘a). The ba-shari‘a sufis complied with the shari‘a, following its rules and rituals. In contrast, the be-shari‘a sufis deliberately defied the shari‘a, often ignoring rituals and observing extreme forms of asceticism. They were known by various names such as Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, and Haidaris. Both traditions, however, shared the common goal of seeking spiritual closeness to God, though their methods and practices varied significantly. The ba-shari‘a sufis maintained a more structured approach within the framework of Islamic law, while the be-shari‘a sufis adopted a more radical and unconventional path.

4. Discuss the ways in which the Alvars, Nayanars, and Virashaivas expressed critiques of the caste system.

Answer: Some historians suggest that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system. This is supported by the fact that bhaktas hailed from diverse social backgrounds, including Brahmanas, artisans, cultivators, and even castes considered “untouchable”​.

The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution” attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas. They also questioned the theory of rebirth, which won them followers among those marginalized within the Brahmanical social order. The Lingayats encouraged practices disapproved in the Dharmashastras, such as post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows​.

Additionally, the compositions of the Alvars and Nayanars were sometimes considered as important as the Vedas, challenging the exclusivity of Brahmanical texts. The Tamil anthology Nalayira Divyaprabandham was often described as the Tamil Veda, equating its significance with the Sanskrit Vedas​

5. Describe the major teachings of either Kabir or Baba Guru Nanak, and the ways in which these have been transmitted.

Answer: Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was born in a Hindu merchant family in Nankana Sahib, Punjab. He spent time among Sufis and Bhaktas and traveled widely. His teachings promoted nirguna bhakti, rejecting external religious practices such as sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, austerities, and the scriptures of both Hindus and Muslims. He believed the Absolute, or “rab,” had no gender or form and emphasized connecting with the Divine through remembering and repeating the Divine Name. His hymns, called “shabad,” were composed in Punjabi and sung in various ragas with his attendant Mardana playing the rabab.

Guru Nanak organized his followers into a community and established congregational worship (sangat) involving collective recitation. He appointed Guru Angad as his successor, and this tradition continued for 200 years. His hymns were compiled by Guru Arjan in the Adi Granth Sahib, which later became the Guru Granth Sahib under Guru Gobind Singh​.

Short essay-type answers

6. Discuss the major beliefs and practices that characterised Sufism

Sufism emerged in the early centuries of Islam as a movement emphasizing asceticism and mysticism in response to the materialism of the Caliphate. Sufis sought salvation through intense devotion and love for God by following His commands and emulating the Prophet Muhammad, whom they regarded as a perfect human being. They interpreted the Qur’an based on personal experience rather than rigid scholastic methods​.

By the eleventh century, Sufism had evolved into a well-structured movement with extensive literature on Quranic studies and sufi practices. Institutionally, Sufis organized their communities around hospices called khanqahs, led by a shaikh (or pir/murshid). These leaders enrolled disciples (murids), appointed successors (khalifas), and established rules for spiritual conduct and interaction​.

Sufi lineages, or silsilas, developed around the twelfth century, linking masters and disciples in an unbroken spiritual chain tracing back to the Prophet Muhammad. Spiritual power and blessings were transmitted through these chains, and initiation rituals involved an oath of allegiance, the wearing of a patched garment, and the shaving of the head​.

A significant practice in Sufism was the veneration of saints. When a shaikh died, his tomb-shrine (dargah) became a center of devotion. Followers performed pilgrimages (ziyarat) to these shrines, particularly on the saint’s death anniversary (urs), believing that in death, the saint was united with God and could intercede on behalf of devotees​.

Certain Sufis lived outside khanqahs and embraced extreme asceticism, celibacy, and mendicancy. They rejected rituals and were known by various names, such as Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, and Haidaris. These figures were often called be-shari‘a sufis due to their defiance of Islamic law, in contrast to ba-shari‘a sufis, who followed it​.

Sufis also contributed to devotional music and poetry. The Chishtis, one of the most influential Sufi orders in India, encouraged practices like sama‘ (mystical music and dance) and qawwali to achieve spiritual ecstasy. Many Sufi poets composed verses in local languages to spread their teachings​.

Over time, Sufis played an essential role in social and religious life, gaining followers across different communities. Their spiritual authority attracted both common people and rulers, who sought their blessings and legitimacy​.

7. Examine how and why rulers tried to establish connections with the traditions of the Nayanars and the Sufis.

Rulers attempted to establish connections with the traditions of the Nayanars and the Sufis for political legitimacy, popular support, and religious patronage.

The powerful Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and Bhakti traditions, granting land and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva. They built magnificent Shiva temples, including those at Chidambaram, Thanjavur, and Gangaikondacholapuram, under their patronage. The visions of the Nayanars inspired artists, and the Chola kings used temple architecture to proclaim their divine support and power. They also introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns in temples under royal patronage and organized them into the text Tevaram. Evidence suggests that in 945 CE, the Chola ruler Parantaka I consecrated metal images of Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar in a Shiva temple, which were carried in processions during the festivals of these saints​.

Similarly, rulers sought connections with the Sufis due to their immense influence over the masses. The Chishti tradition, known for its austerity and detachment from political power, still maintained interactions with rulers. Sufis accepted donations and grants from the political elite, and the Sultans established charitable trusts (auqaf) for their hospices and granted tax-free land (inam). The Sufis’ piety and scholarship, as well as the belief in their miraculous powers, made them popular among the masses, whose support kings wished to secure​.

Kings not only demonstrated their association with Sufis but also sought legitimacy from them. When the Turks established the Delhi Sultanate, they resisted the imposition of shari‘a as state law, fearing opposition from their largely non-Muslim subjects. Instead, they turned to the Sufis, who derived their authority directly from God. The Sultans valued the belief that the auliya (Sufi saints) could intercede with God to improve people’s material and spiritual conditions. This explains why kings often sought to have their tombs built near Sufi shrines and hospices​.

Thus, rulers connected with the traditions of the Nayanars and Sufis to assert divine legitimacy, strengthen their rule, and gain popular support among their subjects.

8. Analyse, with illustrations, why Bhakti and Sufi thinkers adopted a variety of languages in which to express their opinions.

Answer: Bhakti and Sufi thinkers adopted a variety of languages to communicate their ideas effectively to diverse communities. In Delhi, the Chishti Sufis conversed in Hindavi, the local language of the people. Some Sufis, such as Baba Farid, composed verses in local languages, which were later incorporated into the Guru Granth Sahib. Others expressed their devotion through masnavis, or long poems, using allegories of divine love. For example, Malik Muhammad Jayasi’s Padmavat narrated the romance of Padmini and Ratansen, symbolizing the soul’s journey toward the divine​.

In the Deccan, a different genre of Sufi poetry emerged in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, written in Dakhani, a variant of Urdu. These poems were often sung by women while performing household chores. Other compositions, such as lullabies (lurinama) and wedding songs (shadinama), reflected the inspiration drawn from Bhakti traditions, including the Kannada vachanas of the Lingayats and the Marathi abhangs of the sants of Pandharpur. Through these mediums, Islamic ideas gradually integrated into the cultural fabric of the Deccan​.

Bhakti saints also employed various languages to make their teachings accessible. Kabir’s poems were composed in multiple languages and dialects, including sant bhasa, a special language of Nirguna poets. His works also featured ulatbansi (upside-down sayings), which used paradoxical expressions to convey mystical experiences. His verses included terms from Islamic traditions, such as Allah and Hazrat, as well as those from Vedantic traditions, such as Brahman and Atman​.

Similarly, Mirabai composed bhajans that expressed her deep devotion to Krishna. Her songs, transmitted orally for centuries, were characterized by intense emotion and were sung by people, especially those from marginalized communities​.

The adoption of multiple languages by Bhakti and Sufi thinkers allowed them to transcend social and religious barriers, enabling their messages to reach a broader audience and fostering inclusivity in spiritual practices​​​.

9. Read any five of the sources included in this chapter and discuss the social and religious ideas that are expressed in them.

Answer: The religious and social ideas of Bhakti and Sufi traditions reflect diverse beliefs and practices across different regions of India. The selected sources highlight these ideas through various figures and texts.

The first source discusses the beliefs of the Lingayats, a sect that emerged in Karnataka in the 12th century. They rejected caste distinctions and Brahmanical rituals, believing that devotees would be united with Shiva after death, negating the cycle of rebirth. They also promoted widow remarriage and post-puberty marriages, which were against the Brahmanical Dharmashastras​.

The second source features Kabir, a Bhakti saint who criticized religious divisions. He argued against distinctions between Hindu and Muslim deities, emphasizing the unity of God. His verses express that devotion transcends religious identities, condemning superficial rituals and sectarian conflicts​.

The third source focuses on Mirabai, a Rajput princess and devotee of Krishna. She defied traditional caste and gender norms by rejecting her royal status and composing devotional songs. She refused societal expectations and considered Krishna her only master, a belief that continued to inspire the lower castes and marginalized communities​.

The fourth source presents the practices of the Sufis, highlighting their relationship with the state. While some, like the Chishtis, distanced themselves from political authorities, others, such as the Naqshbandis, maintained close ties with rulers. This interaction influenced policies and religious practices, leading to a blend of spiritual and political interests​.

The fifth source discusses the Alvars and Nayanars, who worshipped Vishnu and Shiva respectively. Their compositions challenged the authority of the Brahmanas and emphasized direct devotion to God. Some, like the Alvar saint Tondaradippodi, praised outcastes over the Brahmanas who lacked devotion, promoting inclusivity in worship​.

These sources illustrate the evolving religious and social landscape in medieval India, highlighting the diversity of spiritual thought and the rejection of orthodox structures in favor of personal devotion.

Extras

Additional questions and answers

1. Who coined the terms “great” and “little” traditions?

Answer: The terms “great” and “little” traditions were coined by a sociologist named Robert Redfield in the twentieth century to describe the cultural practices of peasant societies.

2. Define the term “Alvars”.

Answer: The Alvars were some of the earliest bhakti movements (c. sixth century) led by poet-saints who were devotees of Vishnu and traveled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their god.

3. Who were the Nayanars?

Answer: The Nayanars were leaders who were devotees of Shiva and were part of some of the earliest bhakti movements (c. sixth century). They traveled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their god.

4. What is meant by Saguna bhakti?

Answer: Saguna bhakti refers to traditions that focused on the worship of specific deities such as Shiva, Vishnu, and his avatars (incarnations), and forms of the goddess or Devi, all often conceptualized in anthropomorphic forms.

5. Define Nirguna bhakti.

Answer: Nirguna bhakti is the worship of an abstract form of god.

6. Name the woman Alvar whose compositions became widely popular.

Answer: The woman Alvar whose compositions became widely popular was Andal.

7. Who was Karaikkal Ammaiyar?

Answer: Karaikkal Ammaiyar was a woman devotee of Shiva who adopted the path of extreme asceticism in order to attain her goal. Her compositions were preserved within the Nayanar tradition.

8. Define “Tamil Veda”.

Answer: The term “Tamil Veda” refers to the Nalayira Divyaprabandham, a major anthology of compositions by the Alvars, which was frequently described as being as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit cherished by the Brahmanas.

9. Identify the famous anthology of the Alvars’ compositions.

Answer: The famous anthology of the Alvars’ compositions is the Nalayira Divyaprabandham (“Four Thousand Sacred Compositions”).

10. Who were the Virashaivas?

Answer: The Virashaivas, also known as Lingayats (wearers of the linga), were followers of Basavanna, a Brahmana who emerged as a leader of a new movement in Karnataka during the twelfth century. They worshipped Shiva in his manifestation as a linga and challenged ideas of caste and the “pollution” attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas.

11. What was Basavanna’s role in the Virashaiva tradition?

Answer: Basavanna was a Brahmana who served as a minister in the court of a Kalachuri ruler and emerged as a leader of the Virashaiva movement in the twelfth century. His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga).

12. Define “jangama”.

Answer: Jangama refers to wandering monks who are revered within the Lingayat community.

13. Define matrilocal residence.

Answer: Matrilocal residence is a practice where women, after marriage, remain in their natal home with their children, and the husbands may come to stay with them.

14. What is the meaning of “shari‘a”?

Answer: The shari‘a is the law governing the Muslim community. It is based on the Qur’an and the hadis, traditions of the Prophet including a record of his remembered words and deeds. With the expansion of Islamic rule outside Arabia, qiyas (reasoning by analogy) and ijma (consensus of the community) were recognized as two other sources of legislation. Thus, the shari‘a evolved from the Qur’an, hadis, qiyas, and ijma.

15. What is “jizya”?

Answer: Jizya is a tax paid by zimmis, people who followed revealed scriptures, such as Jews and Christians, and lived under Muslim rulership. This status was extended to Hindus in India as well.

16. Define the term “zimmi”.

Answer: Zimmi, meaning protected (derived from the Arabic word zimma, protection), refers to people who followed revealed scriptures, such as Jews and Christians, and lived under Muslim rulership. In India, this status was extended to Hindus as well.

17. What are the “five pillars” of Islam?

Answer: The five pillars of Islam include:
(i) Shahada: There is one God, Allah, and Prophet Muhammad is his messenger.
(ii) Namaz/Salat: Offering prayers five times a day.
(iii) Zakat: Giving alms.
(iv) Sawm: Fasting during the month of Ramzan.
(v) Hajj: Performing the pilgrimage to Mecca.

18. Who were the Khojahs?

Answer: The Khojahs were a branch of the Ismailis (a Shi‘a sect) who developed new modes of communication, disseminating ideas derived from the Qur’an through indigenous literary genres.

19. Define “ginan”.

Answer: Ginan, derived from the Sanskrit jnana, meaning “knowledge,” refers to devotional poems in Punjabi, Multani, Sindhi, Kachchi, Hindi, and Gujarati, sung in special ragas during daily prayer meetings.

20. What is a “mihrab”?

Answer: A mihrab is a prayer niche in mosques that indicates the orientation towards Mecca.

21. Define “minbar”.

Answer: The minbar is a pulpit in mosques, used during sermons and religious teachings.

22. What does the term “mlechchha” signify?

Answer: The term “mlechchha” signifies people who did not observe the norms of caste society and spoke languages not derived from Sanskrit, often referring to migrants or outsiders.

23. Who were the Ulama?

Answer: The Ulama are scholars of Islamic studies who performed various religious, juridical, and teaching functions as preservers of the Islamic tradition.

24. Define “khanqah”.

Answer: A khanqah is a hospice or center where Sufi communities were organized, controlled by a teaching master known as shaikh, pir, or murshid.

25. What is “silsila” in the Sufi tradition?

Answer: In the Sufi tradition, “silsila” literally means a chain, signifying a continuous link between master and disciple, stretching as an unbroken spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammad.

26. Define “urs”.

Answer: “Urs” refers to the death anniversary of a Sufi saint, signifying the union of his soul with God, celebrated as a significant occasion for pilgrimage and devotion.

27. Who were called “wali”?

Answer: “Wali” refers to a Sufi who claimed proximity to Allah, acquiring His Grace (barakat) to perform miracles (karamat), and was considered a “friend of God.”

28. What is meant by “ziyarat”?

Answer: “Ziyarat” refers to the practice of pilgrimage to the tombs of Sufi saints, undertaken to seek their spiritual grace (barakat).

29. What is “qawwali”?

Answer: “Qawwali” is a form of mystical music performed by specially trained musicians or qawwals, integral to Chishti practices, used to evoke divine ecstasy through sama‘ (audition).

30. Define “zikr”.

Answer: “Zikr” refers to the remembrance of the Divine Names, recited by Sufis to evoke the presence of God in their devotional practices.

31. What do historians understand by the integration of cults?

Answer: Historians understand by the integration of cults that there was a process at work where Brahmanas accepted and reworked the beliefs and practices of various social categories. This involved a continuous dialogue between what sociologists described as “great” Sanskritic Puranic traditions and “little” traditions throughout the land, leading to the integration of different religious ideas and practices.

32. How was the local deity at Puri integrated into the Brahmanical tradition?

Answer: The local deity at Puri, whose image was and continues to be made of wood by local tribal specialists, was identified by the twelfth century as Jagannatha (literally, the lord of the world), a form of Vishnu. At the same time, Vishnu was visualised in a way that was very different from that in other parts of the country, indicating the integration of a local deity into the Brahmanical tradition.

33. What are Tantric practices?

Answer: Tantric practices were widespread in several parts of the subcontinent and were open to women and men. Practitioners often ignored differences of caste and class within the ritual context. Many of these ideas influenced Shaivism as well as Buddhism, especially in the eastern, northern, and southern parts of the subcontinent.

34. Describe the difference between Vedic and Puranic traditions.

Answer: The principal deities of the Vedic pantheon, Agni, Indra, and Soma, become marginal figures, rarely visible in textual or visual representations in the Puranic traditions. While Vishnu, Shiva, and the goddess can be glimpsed in Vedic mantras, these have little in common with the elaborate Puranic mythologies. Despite these discrepancies, the Vedas continued to be revered as authoritative.

35. Why were Alvars and Nayanars significant?

Answer: Alvars and Nayanars were significant because they initiated movements of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system. They hailed from diverse social backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans, cultivators, and even from castes considered “untouchable.” Their compositions were sometimes regarded as important as the Vedas, with one major anthology of compositions by the Alvars, the Nalayira Divyaprabandham, being frequently described as the Tamil Veda.

36. How did Alvars and Nayanars influence temple worship?

Answer: During their travels, the Alvars and Nayanars identified certain shrines as abodes of their chosen deities. Large temples were later built at these sacred places, which developed as centers of pilgrimage. Singing compositions of these poet-saints became part of temple rituals in these shrines, as did the worship of the saints’ images.

37. Explain the protest initiated by Alvars and Nayanars against caste.

Answer: Some historians suggest that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system. This is corroborated by the fact that bhaktas hailed from diverse social backgrounds, ranging from Brahmanas to artisans, cultivators, and even castes considered “untouchable.”

38. What does Andal’s poetry express?

Answer: Andal saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu; her verses express her love for the deity.

39. Describe the role of the Cholas in supporting bhakti traditions.

Answer: The powerful Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions, making land grants and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva. Under their patronage, some of the most magnificent Shiva temples, including those at Chidambaram, Thanjavur, and Gangaikondacholapuram, were constructed. They also introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns in the temples under royal patronage, taking the initiative to collect and organize them into a text (Tevaram). Inscriptional evidence from around 945 suggests that the Chola ruler Parantaka I had consecrated metal images of Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar in a Shiva temple.

40. Why were kings interested in associating with bhaktas?

Answer: Rulers tried to win the support of the bhaktas because they were revered by the Vellala peasants. Kings, such as the Cholas, often attempted to claim divine support and proclaim their own power and status by building splendid temples adorned with stone and metal sculptures to recreate the visions of popular saints who sang in the language of the people. Associating with bhaktas helped rulers gain legitimacy and popularity among the masses.

41. Explain Basavanna’s attitude towards rituals.

Answer: Basavanna criticized rituals, questioning their purpose when they were performed without genuine devotion. He highlighted the contradiction between pouring milk on a carved serpent and wanting to kill a real one, or offering food to an image of a god that cannot eat while turning away those who could eat. Through this, he attempted to convince listeners of the superficiality of ritual practices that lacked sincerity.

42. How did the Lingayats challenge traditional Brahmanical norms?

Answer: The Lingayats challenged traditional Brahmanical norms by rejecting the idea of caste and the “pollution” attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas. They also questioned the theory of rebirth and encouraged practices disapproved in the Dharmashastras, such as post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows. Furthermore, they did not practice cremation but instead ceremonially buried their dead.

43. Explain briefly the impact of Turkish rule on religious developments in north India.

Answer: The coming of the Turks and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate undermined the power of many Rajput states and the Brahmanas associated with these kingdoms. This was accompanied by marked changes in culture and religion, including the development of Sufi traditions and the arrival of sufis, which became significant parts of these developments.

44. Who were Naths, Jogis, and Siddhas?

Answer: Naths, Jogis, and Siddhas were new religious leaders who gained ground in north India. Many of them came from artisanal groups, including weavers, and questioned the authority of the Vedas. They expressed themselves in languages spoken by ordinary people, which developed over centuries into the ones used today. However, despite their popularity, these leaders were not in a position to win the support of the ruling elites.

45. Explain briefly the practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat in Sufism.

Answer: Pilgrimage, called ziyarat, to tombs of sufi saints is prevalent all over the Muslim world. It is an occasion for seeking the sufi’s spiritual grace (barakat). People visit dargahs to attain material and spiritual benefits, believing that saints, after death, are united with God and closer to Him than when living.

46. What is the significance of the dargah of Khwaja Muinuddin?

Answer: The dargah of Khwaja Muinuddin, popularly known as “Gharib Nawaz,” is the most revered shrine among the five great Chishti saints. Its popularity grew due to the austerity and piety of its Shaikh, the greatness of his spiritual successors, and royal patronage. Akbar visited the shrine fourteen times, seeking blessings for conquests, vows, and the birth of sons, further enhancing its significance.

47. Why were Chishtis influential in the subcontinent?

Answer: The Chishtis were the most influential group of sufis in the subcontinent because they successfully adapted to the local environment and adopted several features of Indian devotional traditions. Their teachings, practices, and organization spread rapidly through hospices set up by spiritual successors across various regions.

48. Why did kings seek the support of Sufi saints?

Answer: Kings sought the support of Sufi saints because their piety, scholarship, and miraculous powers made them popular among the masses. Securing the support of sufis helped kings gain legitimacy and demonstrate their association with revered spiritual figures, whose moral authority attracted people from all walks of life.

49. What is “langar” in Sufism?

Answer: In Sufism, “langar” refers to an open kitchen run on futuh (unasked-for charity) where people from all walks of life—soldiers, slaves, singers, merchants, poets, travelers, rich and poor, Hindu jogis, and qalandars—came seeking discipleship, amulets for healing, and intercession of the Shaikh in various matters.

50. Describe the importance of “prem-akhyan” poetry.

Answer: “Prem-akhyan” poetry, such as the Padmavat composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi, revolved around human love as an allegory for the soul’s journey to the divine. These poetic compositions were often recited in hospices during sama‘, reflecting interaction with indigenous devotional traditions.

51. Discuss the integration of goddess cults within the Brahmanical tradition.

Answer: The integration of goddess cults within the Brahmanical tradition is evident in the way local deities were often incorporated into the Puranic framework by providing them with an identity as a wife of the principal male deities. Sometimes these local deities were equated with Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu, and in other instances, with Parvati, the wife of Shiva. Worship of the goddess, often simply in the form of a stone smeared with ochre, was evidently widespread, and these local deities were assimilated into the broader Brahmanical system.

52. Explain the difference and conflict between Tantric practices and Vedic traditions.

Answer: Tantric practices were widespread in several parts of the subcontinent and were open to women and men, with practitioners often ignoring differences of caste and class within the ritual context. Many of these ideas influenced Shaivism as well as Buddhism, especially in the eastern, northern, and southern parts of the subcontinent.

On the other hand, those who valued the Vedic tradition often condemned practices that went beyond the closely regulated contact with the divine through the performance of sacrifices or precisely chanted mantras. Tantric practitioners frequently ignored the authority of the Vedas, leading to conflicts between the two traditions.

53. Discuss the significance of women devotees in early bhakti movements.

Answer: One of the most striking features of the early bhakti movements was the presence of women devotees. For instance, the compositions of Andal, a woman Alvar, were widely sung and continue to be sung to date. Andal saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu, and her verses express her love for the deity. Another woman, Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, adopted the path of extreme asceticism to attain her goal. Her compositions were preserved within the Nayanar tradition.

These women renounced their social obligations but did not join an alternative order or become nuns. Their very existence and their compositions posed a challenge to patriarchal norms.

54. Describe the relationship between the Tamil bhakti poets and the state patronage of the Cholas.

Answer: The Tamil bhakti poets enjoyed significant state patronage under the Chola dynasty. The Chola rulers actively supported the Bhakti movement by constructing temples and promoting religious practices aligned with the devotional poetry of these saints. This patronage not only reinforced the spiritual and cultural life of the region but also strengthened the socio-political influence of the Cholas, as temples became centers of economic and administrative activity.

55. What are the distinguishing features of the Virashaiva tradition?

Answer: The distinguishing features of the Virashaiva tradition include:
(i) A strong emphasis on devotion to Lord Shiva, expressed through personal love and direct connection without elaborate rituals.
(ii) Rejection of caste distinctions and social hierarchies, advocating for a more egalitarian society.
(iii) Use of vachanas (prose-poetry) as a medium to express spiritual ideas and social critiques.
(iv) Promotion of Lingayat practice, where devotees wear a small linga around their neck as a symbol of their faith.

56. How did Virashaivas challenge Brahmanical social order?

Answer: The Virashaivas challenged the Brahmanical social order by rejecting the authority of the Vedas and the traditional priestly class. They opposed caste-based discrimination and advocated for equal status among all individuals, irrespective of birth. Their insistence on direct devotion to Shiva bypassed the need for Brahminical intermediaries in religious practices, thereby undermining the entrenched socio-religious hierarchy.

57. Explain how the coming of Islam influenced religious developments in the subcontinent.

Answer: The coming of Islam introduced new religious practices and ideas while interacting with local traditions. Many people adopted Islam, accepting its five “pillars” such as belief in one God (Allah), offering prayers five times a day, giving alms, fasting during Ramzan, and performing the pilgrimage to Mecca. These universal features were often combined with local customary practices. For example, the Khojahs developed new modes of communication through devotional poems in indigenous languages. Arab Muslim traders along the Malabar coast adopted the local language, Malayalam, and customs like matriliny.

Additionally, sufis organized communities around khanqahs, and their shrines became centers of devotion. The Chishti sufis successfully adapted to the local environment and adopted features of Indian devotional traditions.

58. Describe the policies adopted by Muslim rulers towards their non-Muslim subjects.

Answer: Muslim rulers often adopted flexible policies towards their non-Muslim subjects. They gave land endowments and granted tax exemptions to Hindu, Jaina, Zoroastrian, Christian, and Jewish religious institutions. For instance, Akbar issued an imperial order allowing Jesuit priests to build a church in Khambat. Aurangzeb expressed respect and devotion towards non-Muslim religious leaders, sending offerings to a Jogi.

Theoretically, Muslim rulers were guided by the ulama, who ensured they ruled according to the shari‘a, but in practice, rulers extended the status of zimmi (protected) to Hindus, allowing them to live under Muslim rulership by paying a tax called jizya. Rulers like the Mughals came to regard themselves as emperors of all peoples, not just Muslims.

59. Explain the universal and local architectural elements of mosques in the subcontinent.

Answer: Mosques in the subcontinent incorporated both universal and local architectural elements. Universal features included orientation towards Mecca, evident in the placement of the mihrab (prayer niche) and the minbar (pulpit). However, variations existed in roofs and building materials, reflecting local traditions. For example, a mosque in Kerala featured a shikhara-like roof, while the Shah Hamadan mosque in Srinagar showcased Kashmiri wooden architecture with a spire and carved eaves. The Atiya mosque in Bangladesh was built with brick. These adaptations highlight how Islamic architecture blended universal ideals with regional styles.

60. Discuss how the terms “Hindu” and “Muslim” evolved historically?

Answer: The terms “Hindu” and “Muslim” were not used as labels for religious communities for a very long time. Historians studying Sanskrit texts and inscriptions dating between the eighth and fourteenth centuries point out that the term “musalman” or “Muslim” was virtually never used. Instead, people were occasionally identified based on the region they came from. For example, Turkish rulers were designated as “Turushka,” Tajika were people from Tajikistan, and Parashika were people from Persia. Sometimes, terms used for other peoples were applied to new migrants, such as Turks and Afghans being referred to as “Shakas” and “Yavanas.”

A more general term for these migrant communities was “mlechchha,” indicating they did not observe the norms of caste society and spoke languages not derived from Sanskrit. These terms sometimes had a derogatory connotation but rarely denoted a distinct religious community of Muslims in opposition to Hindus. The term “Hindu” was used in a variety of ways, not necessarily restricted to a religious connotation.

61. What led to the development of Sufi silsilas?

Answer: Sufi silsilas began to crystallise in different parts of the Islamic world around the twelfth century. The word “silsila” literally means a chain, signifying a continuous link between master and disciple, stretching as an unbroken spiritual genealogy to the Prophet Muhammad. It was through this channel that spiritual power and blessings were transmitted to devotees. Special rituals of initiation were developed in which initiates took an oath of allegiance, wore a patched garment, and shaved their hair.

When the shaikh died, his tomb-shrine (dargah) became the center of devotion for his followers. This encouraged the practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat to his grave, particularly on his death anniversary or urs (meaning marriage, signifying the union of his soul with God), because people believed that in death saints were united with God and thus closer to Him than when living.

62. Describe the life within a Chishti khanqah.

Answer: The khanqah was the center of social life. For instance, Shaikh Nizamuddin’s hospice (c. fourteenth century) on the banks of the river Yamuna in Ghiyaspur, on the outskirts of what was then the city of Delhi, comprised several small rooms and a big hall (jama’at khana) where the inmates and visitors lived and prayed. The inmates included family members of the Shaikh, his attendants, and disciples. The Shaikh lived in a small room on the roof of the hall where he met visitors in the morning and evening. A veranda surrounded the courtyard, and a boundary wall ran around the complex.

There was an open kitchen (langar), run on futuh (unasked-for charity). From morning till late night, people from all walks of life—soldiers, slaves, singers, merchants, poets, travelers, rich and poor, Hindu jogis (yogi) and qalandars—came seeking discipleship, amulets for healing, and the intercession of the Shaikh in various matters. Other visitors included poets such as Amir Hasan Sijzi and Amir Khusrau and the court historian Ziyauddin Barani, all of whom wrote about the Shaikh. Practices that were adopted, including bowing before the Shaikh, offering water to visitors, shaving the heads of initiates, and yogic exercises, represented attempts to assimilate local traditions.

63. What was the impact of qawwali and sama‘ in the Chishti tradition?

Answer: Qawwali and sama‘ had a significant role in the Chishti tradition as they were integral to their devotional practices. Sama‘, meaning “audition,” involved the use of music and dance, including mystical chants performed by specially trained musicians or qawwals, to evoke divine ecstasy. The Chishtis used sama‘ to remember God either by reciting the zikr (the Divine Names) or evoking His Presence through performance of mystical music.

This practice exemplified interaction with indigenous devotional traditions and became a part of ziyarat (pilgrimage) to sufi shrines. Amir Khusrau, a disciple of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, gave a unique form to the Chishti sama‘ by introducing the qaul, a hymn sung at the opening or closing of qawwali, which was followed by sufi poetry in Persian, Hindavi, or Urdu.

64. Explain the relationship between the Sufi saints and political authority.

Answer: The relationship between Sufi saints and political authority was complex. While a major feature of the Chishti tradition was austerity, including maintaining a distance from worldly power, this did not mean absolute isolation from political power. Sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from political elites, and Sultans set up charitable trusts (auqaf) as endowments for hospices and granted tax-free land (inam). However, sufis preferred to use these donations fully on immediate requirements such as food, clothes, living quarters, and ritual necessities like sama‘.

Their piety, scholarship, and people’s belief in their miraculous powers made them popular among the masses, whose support kings wished to secure. Kings required legitimation from sufis who derived their authority directly from God and did not depend on jurists to interpret the shari‘a. Occasionally, there were conflicts between Sultans and sufis over rituals like prostration and kissing of feet. Some sufis accepted courtly offices, but the modes of their association with the state varied across different orders.

65. Discuss the role of devotional poetry in the spread of Islam in the Deccan.

Answer: Devotional poetry played an important role in the spread of Islam in the Deccan. Sufis in the region composed short poems in Dakhani, a variant of Urdu, which were likely sung by women while performing household chores like grinding grain and spinning. Other compositions included lurinama (lullabies) and shadinama (wedding songs). These poems expressed ideas of divine love using human love as an allegory and were often recited in hospices during sama‘.

It is likely that the sufis of this region were inspired by pre-existing bhakti traditions, such as the Kannada vachanas of the Lingayats and the Marathi abhangs of the sants of Pandharpur. Through this medium, Islam gradually gained a place in the villages of the Deccan.

Additional MCQs

1. Which religious structures dotted the subcontinent by the mid-first millennium CE?

A. Stupas
B. Monasteries
C. Temples
D. All three

Answer: D. All three

2. The compositions of poet‐saints were most often set to what?

A. Music
B. Dance
C. Recitation
D. Chanting

Answer: A. Music

3. Who coined the terms “great” and “little” traditions?

A. Robert Redfield
B. Nammalvar
C. Basavanna
D. Shaikh Nizamuddin

Answer: A. Robert Redfield

4. Which deity at Puri was identified as a form of Vishnu?

A. Jagannatha
B. Shiva
C. Lakshmi
D. Parvati

Answer: A. Jagannatha

5. The local image of the deity at Puri was primarily made of which material?

A. Stone
B. Wood
C. Bronze
D. Clay

Answer: B. Wood

6. In the Puranic framework, which goddess is equated as Vishnu’s wife?

A. Lakshmi
B. Parvati
C. Saraswati
D. Durga

Answer: A. Lakshmi

7. Which practice allowed both women and men to participate irrespective of caste?

A. Tantric
B. Vedic
C. Puranic
D. Devotional

Answer: A. Tantric

8. Which Vedic deities become marginal in later Puranic representations?

A. Vishnu
B. Shiva
C. Agni
D. Devi

Answer: C. Agni

9. Which groups led the early bhakti movements in Tamil Nadu?

A. Alvars
B. Nayanars
C. Both
D. Neither

Answer: C. Both

10. In which language were the Alvars’ and Nayanars’ hymns composed?

A. Sanskrit
B. Tamil
C. Hindi
D. Persian

Answer: B. Tamil

11. Andal, the woman Alvar, regarded herself as the beloved of which deity?

A. Shiva
B. Vishnu
C. Brahma
D. Ganesha

Answer: B. Vishnu

12. Karaikkal Ammaiyar is best known for her adoption of which lifestyle?

A. Asceticism
B. Royalty
C. Merchant
D. Scholar

Answer: A. Asceticism

13. Which dynasty is noted for constructing magnificent Shiva temples like Chidambaram?

A. Chola
B. Pallava
C. Pandya
D. Rajput

Answer: A. Chola

14. Which temple, built under royal patronage, is a notable example of Chola architecture?

A. Chidambaram
B. Meenakshi
C. Brihadeeswarar
D. Konark

Answer: A. Chidambaram

15. The Tevaram, an important collection of hymns, was composed by which trio of saints?

A. Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar
B. Andal, Karaikkal, Tondaradippodi
C. Kabir, Nanak, Mirabai
D. Basavanna, Nayanar, Alvar

Answer: A. Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar

16. Who is the key figure associated with the Virashaiva tradition in Karnataka?

A. Basavanna
B. Kabir
C. Nanak
D. Mirabai

Answer: A. Basavanna

17. Lingayats reject which traditional funerary rite?

A. Cremation
B. Burial
C. Immersion
D. Entombment

Answer: A. Cremation

18. Which Purana is associated with the integration of bhakti ideas?

A. Vishnu Purana
B. Bhagavata Purana
C. Shiva Purana
D. Devi Bhagavata

Answer: B. Bhagavata Purana

19. Who conquered Sind in 711?

A. Muhammad Qasim
B. Akbar
C. Aurangzeb
D. Babur

Answer: A. Muhammad Qasim

20. Under Muslim rule, non-Muslim subjects were required to pay which tax?

A. Zakat
B. Jizya
C. Khums
D. Ushr

Answer: B. Jizya

21. Which of the following is not a source for the shari‘a?

A. Qur’an
B. Hadis
C. Qiyas
D. Vedas

Answer: D. Vedas

22. To whom did Aurangzeb address his letter?

A. Jogi
B. Shaikh
C. Pandit
D. Nayanar

Answer: A. Jogi

23. What item did Akbar offer to facilitate cooking for pilgrims at a dargah?

A. Cauldron
B. Gold
C. Cloth
D. Utensils

Answer: A. Cauldron

24. Which Sufi order is named after its founder, Abd’ul Qadir Jilani?

A. Qadiri
B. Chishti
C. Naqshbandi
D. Suhrawardi

Answer: A. Qadiri

25. What term, meaning “chain,” describes the spiritual genealogy in Sufism?

A. Silsila
B. Khanqah
C. Ziyarat
D. Urs

Answer: A. Silsila

26. What is the name of a Sufi hospice where disciples gathered?

A. Khanqah
B. Mosque
C. Madrasa
D. Dargah

Answer: A. Khanqah

27. Khwaja Muinuddin, known as “Gharib Nawaz,” is most closely associated with which Sufi tradition?

A. Chishti
B. Qadiri
C. Naqshbandi
D. Suhrawardi

Answer: A. Chishti

28. Data Ganj Bakhsh is another name for which Sufi saint?

A. Al Hujwiri
B. Nizamuddin
C. Fariduddin
D. Qutbuddin

Answer: A. Al Hujwiri

29. Who issued a farman that allowed the construction of a church in Khambat?

A. Akbar
B. Aurangzeb
C. Shah Jahan
D. Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Answer: A. Akbar

30. Which pillar of Islam requires fasting during the month of Ramzan?

A. Shahada
B. Namaz
C. Zakat
D. Sawm

Answer: D. Sawm

31. What term refers to the pilgrimage to a Sufi saint’s tomb?

A. Ziyarat
B. Urs
C. Silsila
D. Sama‘

Answer: A. Ziyarat

32. Which musical form, introduced by Amir Khusrau, is central to Sufi devotional practices?

A. Qawwali
B. Ghazal
C. Thumri
D. Bhajan

Answer: A. Qawwali

33. In Bijapur, some Sufi compositions were created in which language variant?

A. Dakhani
B. Persian
C. Arabic
D. Urdu

Answer: A. Dakhani

34. Which compilation is associated specifically with Kabir’s verses?

A. Kabir Bijak
B. Adi Granth
C. Tevaram
D. Divyaprabandham

Answer: A. Kabir Bijak

35. The hymns of which founder are compiled in the Adi Granth Sahib?

A. Guru Nanak
B. Kabir
C. Mirabai
D. Basavanna

Answer: A. Guru Nanak

36. Which of the following is not one of the five symbols defined by Guru Gobind Singh?

A. Comb
B. Dagger
C. Turban
D. Steel bangle

Answer: C. Turban

37. What honorary title was sometimes bestowed upon Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya by his disciples?

A. Sultan-ul-mashaikh
B. Gharib Nawaz
C. Mir
D. Fakir

Answer: A. Sultan-ul-mashaikh

38. Written collections of letters by Sufi masters are known as what?

A. Maktubat
B. Tazkiras
C. Malfuzat
D. Bijaks

Answer: A. Maktubat

39. The term “mlechchha” indicates people who:

A. Speak non-Sanskrit
B. Are devotees
C. Are priests
D. Are saints

Answer: A. Speak non-Sanskrit

40. Which mosque feature directs worshippers toward Mecca?

A. Mihrab
B. Shikhara
C. Veranda
D. Spire

Answer: A. Mihrab

41. Which region is linked with Sufi cultural influence through local devotional practices?

A. Bijapur
B. Delhi
C. Ajmer
D. Punjab

Answer: A. Bijapur

42. Which practice, blending local tradition with Sufi thought, involves musical performance to induce ecstasy?

A. Sama‘
B. Zikr
C. Fasting
D. Chanting

Answer: A. Sama‘

43. Oral sayings of Sufi saints compiled for didactic purposes are called what?

A. Malfuzat
B. Maktubat
C. Silsila
D. Tazkira

Answer: A. Malfuzat

44. In which century did Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya pass away?

A. 13th
B. 14th
C. 15th
D. 16th

Answer: B. 14th

45. Which anthology is referred to as the “Tamil Veda”?

A. Nalayira Divyaprabandham
B. Tevaram
C. Adi Granth
D. Kabir Bijak

Answer: A. Nalayira Divyaprabandham

46. Which Mughal ruler is noted for his frequent visits to Khwaja Muinuddin’s dargah?

A. Akbar
B. Aurangzeb
C. Shah Jahan
D. Tughlaq

Answer: A. Akbar

47. Who is famously known as the “devotee princess”?

A. Mirabai
B. Andal
C. Karaikkal
D. None

Answer: A. Mirabai

48. Which instrument did Mardana play to accompany Baba Guru Nanak’s hymns?

A. Rabab
B. Sitar
C. Tabla
D. Flute

Answer: A. Rabab

49. Which preceptor compiled the hymns of Baba Guru Nanak along with those of his successors?

A. Guru Arjan
B. Guru Gobind Singh
C. Guru Nanak
D. Angad

Answer: A. Guru Arjan

50. Which treatise, written by a native of Hujwir, explains Sufi thought in India?

A. Kashf-ul-Mahjub
B. Akhbar-ul-Akhyar
C. Fawa’id-al-Fu’ad
D. Guru Granth Sahib

Answer: A. Kashf-ul-Mahjub