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An Imperial Capital Vijayanagara: AHSEC Class 12 History notes
Get summaries, questions, answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF and guide of Class 12 (second year) History textbook, chapter 7 An Imperial Capital Vijayanagara which is part of the syllabus of students studying under AHSEC/ASSEB (Assam Board). These solutions, however, should only be treated as references and can be modified/changed.
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Summary
Vijayanagara, meaning “City of Victory,” was both an empire and a city founded in the fourteenth century. At its peak, it stretched from the Krishna River in the north to the southernmost part of India. The empire fell in 1565 after a major battle, and the city was eventually abandoned, though people continued to remember it as Hampi, named after the local goddess Pampadevi. The ruins of the city were rediscovered in 1800 by Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian working for the East India Company. He relied on local priests’ accounts and inscriptions to gather information. By the mid-nineteenth century, photographs and epigraphic studies helped scholars reconstruct its history.
The empire was founded by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, in 1336. Its rulers competed with the Deccan Sultanates and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa for control over fertile lands and trade routes. Despite these conflicts, there was an exchange of ideas, particularly in architecture. Vijayanagara rulers adopted and developed techniques from different regions. The empire also had a strong trade network, dealing in horses, spices, textiles, and precious stones. Merchants from Arabia, Central Asia, and later the Portuguese played key roles in commerce. The wealth from trade contributed significantly to the empire’s prosperity.
The empire had three major ruling dynasties: the Sangama, Saluva, and Tuluva. The most famous ruler was Krishnadeva Raya, who reigned from 1509 to 1529. His rule saw territorial expansion, economic growth, and remarkable architectural achievements. He defeated several rival kingdoms, secured control over important regions, and patronized temple construction. His death led to internal struggles, and by 1565, the empire faced a major defeat at the Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota) against a coalition of Deccan Sultanates. The city was sacked and left in ruins, with the focus of power shifting elsewhere.
The empire had a unique administrative structure. Military chiefs, known as nayakas, controlled different regions and maintained their own armies. They collected taxes and paid tribute to the king. However, over time, they became more independent, contributing to the empire’s decline.
Vijayanagara was a well-planned city with distinct zones. The royal center housed palaces and government buildings. The sacred center contained important temples like the Virupaksha and Vitthala temples. These temples featured large gateways called gopurams and richly decorated pillars. The urban core had markets, residential areas, and roads connecting different parts of the city. Water management was advanced, with tanks, canals, and reservoirs ensuring a steady supply.
One of the grandest structures was the Mahanavami Dibba, a raised platform where the king performed ceremonies during the festival of Mahanavami (Dussehra). This festival involved animal sacrifices, dances, military parades, and the display of royal wealth and power. Foreign travelers who visited the city, including Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz from Portugal, described its grandeur, thriving markets, and the abundance of goods.
After the empire’s decline, regional rulers, known as the nayakas, continued Vijayanagara’s architectural traditions. Even though the city was abandoned, its influence persisted in later temple and palace constructions. Today, the ruins of Hampi are a UNESCO World Heritage site, offering insight into a once-great civilization.
Textbook solutions
Answer in 100-150 words
1. What have been the methods used to study the ruins of Hampi over the last two centuries? In what way do you think they would have complemented the information provided by the priests of the Virupaksha temple?
Answer: The ruins at Hampi were first brought to light in 1800 by Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian, who prepared the first survey map of the site. He gathered initial information from the memories of priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi. From 1856, photographers began recording the monuments, allowing scholars to study them. Epigraphists started collecting inscriptions from 1836, and historians later collated this information with accounts of foreign travellers and literature in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit. Archaeological surveys, mapping techniques, and conservation efforts, including those by the Archaeological Survey of India, have further contributed to understanding the site. These studies complemented the priests’ oral traditions by providing tangible evidence through inscriptions, architecture, and historical documentation.
2. How were the water requirements of Vijayanagara met?
Answer: The most striking feature about the location of Vijayanagara is the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra, which flows in a north-easterly direction. Several streams flowed down from the surrounding granite hills into the river. Embankments were built along these streams to create reservoirs of varying sizes. Since this was one of the most arid zones of the peninsula, elaborate arrangements were made to store rainwater and conduct it to the city. The most important such tank was built in the early fifteenth century and is now called Kamalapuram tank. Water from this tank not only irrigated fields nearby but was also conducted through a channel to the “royal centre.” One of the most prominent waterworks was the Hiriya canal, which drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra and irrigated the cultivated valley that separated the “sacred centre” from the “urban core.” This canal was built by the Sangama dynasty.
3. What do you think were the advantages and disadvantages of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the city?
Answer: The advantage of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area was that it ensured food security during times of war and sieges, as the defenders would not be starved into submission. Normally, rulers built large granaries within fortified areas, but the rulers of Vijayanagara adopted a more expensive and elaborate strategy of protecting the agricultural belt itself. This meant that even in prolonged conflicts, they had access to fresh food supplies.
The disadvantage, however, was that it required an extensive and costly defense system to enclose both the city and its agricultural hinterland. Constructing such large fortifications demanded significant resources, labor, and time. Additionally, maintaining these fortifications and ensuring the safety of the agricultural lands within them could have been challenging, especially if enemy forces attempted to breach the outer defenses.
4. What do you think was the significance of the rituals associated with the Mahanavami Dibba?
Answer: Rituals associated with the Mahanavami Dibba coincided with Mahanavami (literally, the great ninth day) of the ten-day Hindu festival during the autumn months of September and October, known as Dussehra (in northern India), Durga Puja (in Bengal), and Navaratri or Mahanavami (in peninsular India). The Vijayanagara kings displayed their prestige, power, and suzerainty on this occasion. The ceremonies performed included worship of the image, worship of the state horse, and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals. Dances, wrestling matches, processions of caparisoned horses, elephants, chariots, and soldiers, as well as ritual presentations before the king and his guests by the chief nayakas and subordinate kings, marked the occasion. These ceremonies were imbued with deep symbolic meanings. On the last day of the festival, the king inspected his army and the armies of the nayakas in a grand ceremony in an open field. On this occasion, the nayakas brought rich gifts for the king as well as the stipulated tribute.
5. Fig. 7.33 is an illustration of another pillar from the Virupaksha temple. Do you notice any floral motifs? What are the animals shown? Why do you think they are depicted? Describe the human figures shown.
Answer: The pillar from the Virupaksha temple features several floral motifs, which are intricately carved into the design. The animals depicted include a rearing horse, which is highly detailed with ornamental patterns. Horses were commonly shown in Vijayanagara art as symbols of power, cavalry strength, and royal authority. The human figures carved on the pillar include a deity seated on a throne, possibly a form of Vishnu or Shiva, and other figures engaged in various activities. Some figures appear to be musicians or attendants, while others seem to be warriors or divine beings. These depictions reflect the religious and royal themes commonly represented in Vijayanagara temple architecture.
Short essay-type answers
6. Discuss whether the term “royal centre” is an appropriate description for the part of the city for which it is used.
Answer: The term “royal centre” is an appropriate description for the southwestern part of Vijayanagara as it housed numerous structures associated with the ruling elite. This area contained over 60 temples, which highlights the rulers’ patronage of religious institutions. These temples were crucial for legitimizing their authority and divine association. Additionally, there were about 30 palace complexes, which were large and distinct from religious structures, indicating their use as administrative and residential spaces for the ruling class.
One of the most significant structures in the royal centre was the Mahanavami Dibba, a massive platform used for state rituals and celebrations, including the Mahanavami festival. This structure symbolized the king’s power and authority, reinforcing the idea of the area as a hub of royal activities. The audience hall, another key structure, was a high platform with pillars, possibly used for royal gatherings and administrative functions. These buildings underline the political and ceremonial importance of the royal centre.
Furthermore, the architectural style of buildings such as the Lotus Mahal and the so-called elephant stables reflect Indo-Islamic influences, demonstrating the cosmopolitan nature of Vijayanagara’s elite. The presence of fortifications around the royal centre further emphasizes its exclusive and significant role within the city. Unlike the sacred centre, which was more publicly accessible, the royal centre was a restricted area primarily for the use of the king, his court, and high-ranking officials.
Given its concentration of administrative, residential, and ceremonial structures linked to the Vijayanagara rulers, the term “royal centre” accurately captures its function and significance in the city.
7. What does the architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal and elephant stables tell us about the rulers who commissioned them?
Answer: The architecture of buildings like the Lotus Mahal and the elephant stables in Vijayanagara reflects the grandeur, cosmopolitanism, and strategic vision of the rulers who commissioned them. The Lotus Mahal, a unique structure in the royal centre, exhibits a blend of Indo-Islamic architectural elements, particularly in its arches and domes. These features indicate that the Vijayanagara rulers were open to cultural influences from the Deccan Sultanates and other contemporary powers. The building’s function is not clearly established, but it is suggested that it might have been a council chamber or a pleasure pavilion, highlighting the emphasis on both governance and luxury in the royal centre.
Similarly, the elephant stables, located close to the Lotus Mahal, are notable for their Indo-Islamic architectural influences, with arched entrances and domed roofs. The presence of such a grand structure for housing elephants signifies the importance of military strength and prestige in the Vijayanagara Empire. Elephants played a crucial role in warfare and royal processions, and the elaborate nature of their stables underscores the rulers’ emphasis on power, control, and display of wealth.
Both these structures indicate that the Vijayanagara rulers sought to establish an impressive and culturally vibrant capital. Their patronage of architectural styles that blended indigenous and foreign influences demonstrates their ambition to create a unique imperial identity. These buildings also reflect the rulers’ strategic governance, where military might, artistic grandeur, and cross-cultural interactions were integral to the administration of their vast empire.
8. What are the architectural traditions that inspired the architects of Vijayanagara? How did they transform these traditions?
Answer: Some of the areas that were incorporated within the empire had witnessed the development of powerful states such as those of the Cholas in Tamil Nadu and the Hoysalas in Karnataka. Ruling elites in these areas had extended patronage to elaborate temples such as the Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur and the Chennakeshava temple at Belur. The rulers of Vijayanagara, who called themselves rayas, built on these traditions and carried them, as we will see, literally to new heights.
Even as they drew on earlier traditions, the rulers of Vijayanagara innovated and developed these. Royal portrait sculpture was now displayed in temples, and the king’s visits to temples were treated as important state occasions on which he was accompanied by the important nayakas of the empire.
In terms of temple architecture, by this period certain new features were in evidence. These included structures of immense scale that must have been a mark of imperial authority, best exemplified by the raya gopurams or royal gateways that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines, and signaled the presence of the temple from a great distance. They were also probably meant as reminders of the power of kings, able to command the resources, techniques, and skills needed to construct these towering gateways. Other distinctive features include mandapas or pavilions and long, pillared corridors that often ran around the shrines within the temple complex.
Another shrine, the Vitthala temple, is also interesting. Here, the principal deity was Vitthala, a form of Vishnu generally worshipped in Maharashtra. The introduction of the worship of the deity in Karnataka is another indication of the ways in which the rulers of Vijayanagara drew on different traditions to create an imperial culture.
Just as the nayakas continued with and elaborated on traditions of fortification, so they did with traditions of temple building. In fact, some of the most spectacular gopurams were also built by the local nayakas.
9. Impression of the Lives of Ordinary People in Vijayanagara
Answer: The descriptions in the chapter provide glimpses into the lives of ordinary people in Vijayanagara. The city was vast, with different sections catering to various social and economic classes. The houses of ordinary people were primarily thatched but well built. These houses were arranged according to occupations and formed long streets with open spaces.
Markets played a significant role in daily life. There were bazaars selling various goods such as rubies, diamonds, pearls, cloth, and food items like rice, wheat, pulses, fruits, and meat. The markets were well-stocked and described as overflowing with abundance. Common people had access to a variety of food, including mutton, pork, venison, poultry, and even less common items such as rats and lizards.
Agriculture was crucial, with fortified areas encompassing cultivated land to ensure food supply during times of siege. Farmers, along with artisans and traders, contributed to the economy. Water management was essential, with elaborate irrigation systems, tanks, and canals ensuring adequate water for agriculture and daily use.
Religion played a significant role in people’s lives. Numerous small shrines and temples were spread across the city, pointing to diverse religious practices supported by different communities. Temple festivals and rituals were integral to social and cultural life, with grand celebrations like the Mahanavami festival.
While archaeological evidence of common people’s houses is limited, inscriptions and traveler accounts suggest a thriving urban society where trade, agriculture, and religious activities shaped daily life.
Extras
Additional questions and answers
1. Define Vijayanagara.
Answer: Vijayanagara, meaning “city of victory,” was both a city and an empire founded in the fourteenth century. The empire stretched from the river Krishna in the north to the extreme south of the peninsula at its height.
2. When was Vijayanagara Empire founded?
Answer: The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336.
3. Who founded the Vijayanagara Empire?
Answer: According to tradition and epigraphic evidence, two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, founded the Vijayanagara Empire.
4. What does the term “karnataka samrajyamu” mean?
Answer: The term “karnataka samrajyamu” refers to the name contemporaries used to describe what historians call the Vijayanagara Empire.
5. Who was Colin Mackenzie?
Answer: Colin Mackenzie, born in 1754, became famous as an engineer, surveyor, and cartographer. He was appointed the first Surveyor General of India in 1815, a post he held till his death in 1821.
6. What was the significance of Colin Mackenzie’s work?
Answer: Colin Mackenzie prepared the first survey map of Hampi in 1800, bringing the ruins to light. His work combined with oral traditions and archaeological finds helped rediscover the Vijayanagara Empire.
7. Name the two main temples initially providing information on Vijayanagara.
Answer: The two main temples initially providing information on Vijayanagara were the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi.
8. What are kudirai chettis?
Answer: Kudirai chettis were local communities of merchants known as horse merchants who participated in the trade of horses imported from Arabia and Central Asia.
9. What does “Gajapati” literally mean?
Answer: “Gajapati” literally means lord of elephants.
10. What is the meaning of “ashvapati”?
Answer: “Ashvapati” means lord of horses.
11. Who were known as “narapati”?
Answer: The rayas, or rulers of Vijayanagara, were called “narapati,” meaning lord of men.
12. Which dynasty first ruled Vijayanagara?
Answer: The Sangama dynasty first ruled Vijayanagara.
13. When did the Sangama dynasty end?
Answer: The Sangama dynasty ended in 1485.
14. Who established the Saluva dynasty?
Answer: The Saluva dynasty was established by military commanders who supplanted the Sangama dynasty and remained in power till 1503.
15. When did Krishnadeva Raya rule Vijayanagara?
Answer: Krishnadeva Raya ruled Vijayanagara from 1509 to 1529.
16. What was the “amara-nayaka” system?
Answer: The “amara-nayaka” system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire where military commanders, known as amara-nayakas, were given territories to govern by the raya. They collected taxes, retained part of the revenue for personal use, and maintained contingents of horses and elephants.
17. Name the river that formed a natural basin around Vijayanagara.
Answer: The river Tungabhadra formed a natural basin around Vijayanagara.
18. What is the modern name for the ruins of Vijayanagara?
Answer: The modern name for the ruins of Vijayanagara is Hampi.
19. Which tank was built in the early fifteenth century at Vijayanagara?
Answer: The Kamalapuram tank was built in the early fifteenth century at Vijayanagara.
20. What is the “mahanavami dibba”?
Answer: The “mahanavami dibba” is a massive platform located on one of the highest points in the city, rising from a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft. It supported a wooden structure and was associated with rituals coinciding with Mahanavami.
21. Who was Domingo Paes?
Answer: Domingo Paes was a Portuguese traveler who visited Vijayanagara in the sixteenth century and provided vivid descriptions of the city.
22. Which temple was likely used exclusively by the royal family?
Answer: The Hazara Rama temple was probably meant to be used only by the king and his family.
23. What were the reasons for the rise of Vijayanagara Empire?
Answer: The rise of the Vijayanagara Empire can be attributed to its establishment in a region that had witnessed the development of powerful states such as those of the Cholas in Tamil Nadu and the Hoysalas in Karnataka. Additionally, the empire was founded by Harihara and Bukka, who extended their control over areas with people speaking different languages and following diverse religious traditions. The empire also benefited from lucrative overseas trade and the import of horses, which were crucial for warfare during this period.
24. What led to the decline of Vijayanagara Empire?
Answer: The decline of the Vijayanagara Empire began after the death of Krishnadeva Raya in 1529, when rebellious nayakas or military chiefs troubled his successors. By 1542, control at the centre shifted to the Aravidu dynasty, but the empire faced shifting alignments due to the military ambitions of both the Vijayanagara rulers and the Deccan Sultanates. Eventually, an alliance of the Sultanates defeated Vijayanagara in the Battle of Talikota (Rakshasi-Tangadi) in 1565, leading to the sacking of the city and its abandonment within a few years.
25. Describe the significance of the Hiriya canal.
Answer: The Hiriya canal was one of the most prominent waterworks among the ruins of Vijayanagara. It drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra River and irrigated the cultivated valley that separated the “sacred centre” from the “urban core.” This canal was likely built by kings of the Sangama dynasty and played a vital role in supporting agriculture in the region.
26. Explain the importance of trade in Vijayanagara.
Answer: Trade was regarded as a status symbol for cities like Vijayanagara, which boasted a wealthy population demanding high-value exotic goods such as precious stones and jewellery. The revenue derived from trade contributed significantly to the prosperity of the state. Additionally, the import of horses from Arabia and Central Asia was crucial for effective cavalry warfare, making trade essential for maintaining military strength.
27. What was the result of the Battle of Talikota (Rakshasi-Tangadi)?
Answer: In the Battle of Talikota (Rakshasi-Tangadi) in 1565, Rama Raya, the chief minister of Vijayanagara, led the army against the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Golconda. The Vijayanagara forces were routed, and the victorious armies sacked the city of Vijayanagara. Within a few years, the city was totally abandoned.
28. Describe the role of nayakas in Vijayanagara Empire.
Answer: Nayakas were military chiefs who exercised power in the Vijayanagara Empire, often controlling forts and having armed supporters. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons, and traders in their territories, retaining part of the revenue for personal use and maintaining stipulated contingents of horses and elephants. They sent tribute annually to the king and appeared in the royal court with gifts to express loyalty. However, they often rebelled and had to be subdued by military action.
29. Why did the Vijayanagara Empire import horses?
Answer: The Vijayanagara Empire imported horses because effective cavalry was crucial for warfare during this period. Horses were imported from Arabia and Central Asia, initially controlled by Arab traders, with local communities of merchants known as kudirai chettis also participating in these exchanges.
30. What distinguished the fortifications of Vijayanagara?
Answer: The fortifications of Vijayanagara were massive masonry constructions slightly tapered, with no mortar or cementing agent employed. The stone blocks were wedge-shaped, holding them in place, and the inner portion of the walls was made of earth packed with rubble. Square or rectangular bastions projected outwards, and there were seven lines of forts encircling not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests.
31. What was the purpose of the fortifications enclosing agricultural land?
Answer: The purpose of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area was to protect the agricultural belt itself, ensuring food supply during sieges. Normally, rulers tried to prepare for sieges by building large granaries within fortified areas, but the Vijayanagara rulers adopted the more expensive strategy of protecting the entire agricultural tract.
32. Who were the amara-nayakas and what were their functions?
Answer: The amara-nayakas were military commanders given territories to govern by the raya. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons, and traders, retained part of the revenue for personal use, and maintained stipulated contingents of horses and elephants. Some revenue was used for maintaining temples and irrigation works. They sent tribute annually to the king and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express loyalty.
33. Explain the importance of the Lotus Mahal.
Answer: The Lotus Mahal, located in the royal centre, is considered one of the most beautiful buildings in Vijayanagara. Its exact purpose is uncertain, though suggestions include it being a council chamber where the king met his advisers. The structure features arches inspired by Indo-Islamic techniques and has nine towers, with decorative elements resembling mandapas found in temples.
34. How was water stored and utilised at Vijayanagara?
Answer: Water was stored in reservoirs created by building embankments along streams flowing into the Tungabhadra River. The most important tank was the Kamalapuram tank, built in the early fifteenth century, which irrigated nearby fields and supplied water to the “royal centre.” The Hiriya canal also played a significant role in irrigating cultivated valleys.
35. Describe the royal centre in Vijayanagara.
Answer: The royal centre was located in the south-western part of the settlement and included over 60 temples, highlighting the patronage of temples and cults by rulers. It contained about thirty building complexes identified as palaces, which were relatively large structures not associated with ritual functions. Notable structures included the “mahanavami dibba,” audience halls, the Lotus Mahal, and the Hazara Rama temple.
36. Explain the significance of the Virupaksha temple.
Answer: The Virupaksha temple was significant as it was associated with the sacred traditions of the hills sheltering the monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva from the Ramayana. It was also linked to Pampadevi, the local mother goddess, whose marriage to Virupaksha was celebrated annually. The temple was expanded substantially with the establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire, and its halls were used for various purposes, including music, dance, and celebrating divine weddings.
37. What was the architectural influence on Vijayanagara’s gateways?
Answer: The architectural influence on Vijayanagara’s gateways included features introduced by Turkish Sultans, regarded as typical of Indo-Islamic architecture. These influences grew through interaction with local building practices in different regions, as seen in the arches and domes over gateways leading into fortified settlements.
38. Describe the discovery and initial documentation of Hampi by Colin Mackenzie.
Answer: The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by an engineer and antiquarian named Colonel Colin Mackenzie. He prepared the first survey map of the site. Much of the initial information he received was based on the memories of priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi. Subsequently, from 1856, photographers began to record the monuments which enabled scholars to study them.
39. Explain the relationship between Vijayanagara Empire and the Deccan Sultanates.
Answer: The relationship between the Vijayanagara Empire and the Deccan Sultanates was complex and not always hostile despite religious differences. On their northern frontier, the Vijayanagara kings competed with contemporary rulers, including the Sultans of the Deccan, for control of fertile river valleys and resources generated by lucrative overseas trade. Interaction between these states led to sharing ideas, especially in architecture. Krishnadeva Raya supported some claimants to power in the Sultanates and took pride in the title “establisher of the Yavana kingdom.” Similarly, the Sultan of Bijapur intervened to resolve succession disputes in Vijayanagara following Krishnedevaraya’s death. However, the adventurous policy of Rama Raya, who tried to play off one Sultan against another, led the Sultans to combine and decisively defeat him in 1565.
40. Discuss the expansion and achievements during Krishnadeva Raya’s rule.
Answer: Krishnadeva Raya’s rule was characterized by expansion and consolidation. During his reign, the land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers (the Raichur doab) was acquired (1512), the rulers of Orissa were subdued (1514), and severe defeats were inflicted on the Sultan of Bijapur (1520). Although the kingdom remained in a constant state of military preparedness, it flourished under conditions of unparalleled peace and prosperity. Krishnadeva Raya is credited with building some fine temples and adding impressive gopurams to many important south Indian temples. He also founded a suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram after his mother.
41. Describe the layout and features of Vijayanagara city.
Answer: Vijayanagara was characterised by a distinctive physical layout and building style. The city was located in a natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra, surrounded by stunning granite hills. A number of streams flowed down to the river, and embankments were built along these streams to create reservoirs of varying sizes. The city had seven lines of fortifications that encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests. These fortifications enclosed agricultural tracts, fields, gardens, and houses. Roads generally wound around through the valleys, avoiding rocky terrain, and some of the most important roads extended from temple gateways, lined by bazaars. The urban core included relatively little archaeological evidence of houses of ordinary people, though fine Chinese porcelain suggests areas occupied by rich traders. The royal centre included over 60 temples and about thirty building complexes identified as palaces.
42. Explain the rituals associated with the mahanavami dibba.
Answer: The rituals associated with the mahanavami dibba probably coincided with Mahanavami of the ten-day Hindu festival during the autumn months of September and October, known variously as Dussehra, Durga Puja, or Navaratri. The ceremonies performed on this occasion included worship of the image, worship of the state horse, and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals. Dances, wrestling matches, and processions of caparisoned horses, elephants, and chariots and soldiers marked the occasion. These events were imbued with deep symbolic meanings. On the last day of the festival, the king inspected his army and the armies of the nayakas in a grand ceremony in an open field. On this occasion, the nayakas brought rich gifts for the king as well as the stipulated tribute.
43. Discuss the importance of gopurams and mandapas in Vijayanagara’s temple architecture.
Answer: Gopurams and mandapas were integral to the temple architecture of Vijayanagara, serving both religious and social purposes. Gopurams, the towering gateways to the temples, symbolized the grandeur and power of the empire while also acting as landmarks visible from afar. They often featured intricate carvings depicting deities, mythological scenes, and motifs that reflected the artistic excellence of the period. Mandapas, or pillared halls, were multipurpose spaces within the temple complex. They were used for religious ceremonies, gatherings, and performances of music and dance. The mandapas were designed with elaborate pillars adorned with sculptures, showcasing the fusion of art and devotion. Together, gopurams and mandapas highlighted the architectural brilliance and cultural significance of Vijayanagara temples.
44. Describe the different roles of temples in Vijayanagara society.
Answer: Temples in Vijayanagara society played multifaceted roles beyond their religious functions. Firstly, they served as centers of worship, where people gathered to perform rituals, offer prayers, and seek blessings. Secondly, temples acted as hubs of education and culture, hosting scholars, artists, and performers who contributed to the intellectual and artistic life of the empire. Thirdly, they functioned as economic institutions, managing vast landholdings, collecting revenue, and supporting local economies through trade and employment. Fourthly, temples were centers of social interaction, fostering community bonds and organizing festivals that brought people together. Lastly, temples symbolized the political authority of the rulers, as their construction and maintenance were often patronized by the royal family, reflecting their devotion and legitimacy.
45. Discuss how the Lotus Mahal reflects cultural and architectural integration in Vijayanagara.
Answer: The Lotus Mahal in Vijayanagara is a remarkable example of cultural and architectural integration, blending elements from Hindu, Islamic, and indigenous styles. Its design features arched gateways, domes, and stucco work typical of Islamic architecture, combined with traditional Hindu motifs and intricate carvings. The structure’s layout reflects a harmonious balance between functionality and aesthetics, serving as a royal residence or audience hall. The use of water channels and fountains within the complex highlights the incorporation of Persian influences, while the overall symmetry and proportion adhere to indigenous architectural principles. This synthesis of diverse styles underscores the cosmopolitan nature of Vijayanagara and its openness to cultural exchange.
46. Explain the significance of trade for Vijayanagara rulers.
Answer: Trade was of immense significance to the Vijayanagara rulers, as it contributed to the empire’s wealth, stability, and international prominence. The rulers actively promoted trade by establishing strategic alliances with foreign merchants and ensuring safe passage for traders through well-maintained roads and ports. Trade brought valuable goods such as horses, precious metals, textiles, and spices, which were essential for the military and economy. Revenue generated from customs duties and taxes on trade bolstered the state treasury, enabling the rulers to fund large-scale infrastructure projects, patronize arts and culture, and maintain a strong army. Additionally, trade facilitated cultural exchanges, enhancing Vijayanagara’s reputation as a vibrant and cosmopolitan empire.
47. Describe the roles and activities of the markets and bazaars of Vijayanagara.
Answer: The markets and bazaars of Vijayanagara were bustling centers of economic and social activity. They served as hubs for the exchange of goods, including agricultural produce, handicrafts, textiles, jewelry, and imported items like horses and luxury goods. These markets catered to a diverse population, including local residents, pilgrims, and foreign traders. Artisans and merchants displayed their wares in designated areas, creating specialized zones for different types of goods. In addition to commerce, the bazaars were venues for cultural interactions, where people from various regions and backgrounds mingled. Festivals and public performances often took place in these areas, adding to their vibrancy. The markets not only supported the local economy but also reflected the prosperity and cosmopolitan character of Vijayanagara.
48. Explain how the Vijayanagara Empire managed resources, especially focusing on water resources and irrigation methods?
Answer: The Vijayanagara Empire managed its water resources by taking advantage of the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra, which flowed in a north-easterly direction. The surrounding landscape was characterized by granite hills that formed a girdle around the city, with streams flowing down to the river from these rocky outcrops. Embankments were built along these streams to create reservoirs of varying sizes.
In one of the most arid zones of the peninsula, elaborate arrangements were made to store rainwater and conduct it to the city. One of the most important tanks was built in the early years of the fifteenth century, called the Kamalapuram tank. Water from this tank irrigated nearby fields and was also conducted through a channel to the “royal centre.” Another prominent waterwork was the Hiriya canal, which drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra and irrigated the cultivated valley separating the “sacred centre” from the “urban core.” This canal was built by kings of the Sangama dynasty.
49. Describe the architectural features and significance of the royal centre and the urban core of Vijayanagara?
Answer: The royal centre of Vijayanagara was located in the south-western part of the settlement and included over 60 temples, highlighting the importance of temple patronage for rulers seeking to legitimize their authority. About thirty building complexes identified as palaces were relatively large structures not associated with ritual functions. One of the most distinctive structures was the “mahanavami dibba,” a massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft, likely supporting a wooden structure. It was used for rituals during the Mahanavami festival, which included worship of the image, state horse, animal sacrifices, dances, wrestling matches, processions, and presentations by nayakas and subordinate kings.
The urban core had relatively little archaeological evidence of ordinary people’s houses, though fine Chinese porcelain was found in some areas, suggesting occupation by rich traders. The urban core also featured wells, rainwater tanks, and temple tanks as water sources for ordinary town dwellers. Roads within the city wound around valleys, avoiding rocky terrain, and some extended from temple gateways, lined by bazaars.
50. Discuss the various dynasties of the Vijayanagara Empire and their contributions to the growth and eventual decline of the empire?
Answer: The Vijayanagara Empire saw rule by multiple dynasties. The first was the Sangama dynasty, which exercised control until 1485. They were supplanted by the Saluvas, military commanders who remained in power until 1503, when they were replaced by the Tuluvas. Krishnadeva Raya, belonging to the Tuluva dynasty, expanded and consolidated the empire, acquiring the Raichur doab (1512), subduing the rulers of Orissa (1514), and defeating the Sultan of Bijapur (1520). His reign marked unparalleled peace and prosperity.
However, strain began to show after his death in 1529, with rebellious nayakas troubling his successors. By 1542, control shifted to the Aravidu dynasty, which ruled until the end of the seventeenth century. During this period, shifting alliances among the rulers of Vijayanagara and the Deccan Sultanates eventually led to an alliance of the Sultanates against Vijayanagara. In 1565, Rama Raya, the chief minister of Vijayanagara, was defeated at Rakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota) by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Golconda. The victorious armies sacked the city of Vijayanagara, leading to its abandonment and hastening the collapse of the central imperial structure.
51. Explain the amara-nayaka system and analyse its significance in the political administration of the Vijayanagara Empire?
Answer: The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire, likely derived from the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate. Amara-nayakas were military commanders given territories to govern by the raya. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons, and traders, retaining part of the revenue for personal use and maintaining stipulated contingents of horses and elephants. These contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with an effective fighting force to bring the entire southern peninsula under their control. Some revenue was also used for temple maintenance and irrigation works.
Annually, the amara-nayakas sent tribute to the king and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express loyalty. Kings occasionally transferred them between places to assert control. However, during the seventeenth century, many nayakas established independent kingdoms, hastening the collapse of the central imperial structure.
52. Discuss the distinctive elements of Vijayanagara architecture, particularly in the context of fortifications, temples, and royal structures?
Answer: Vijayanagara architecture was characterized by distinctive elements in fortifications, temples, and royal structures. Fortifications included seven lines of forts encircling the city, its agricultural hinterland, and forests, with walls linking the surrounding hills. The outermost wall enclosed cultivated fields, gardens, and houses. Gates regulated access and were architectural features resembling Indo-Islamic styles, featuring arches and domes introduced by Turkish Sultans.
Temples displayed immense scale structures like raya gopurams or royal gateways dwarfing central shrine towers, mandapas (pavilions), and long pillared corridors. The Virupaksha temple, built over centuries, featured halls for music, dance, and deity celebrations, while the Vitthala temple showcased unique shrines designed as chariots.
Royal structures included the Lotus Mahal, possibly a council chamber, and the mahanavami dibba, a massive platform used for Mahanavami festival rituals. The architecture reflected imperial authority and drew on earlier traditions while innovating new forms.
53. Describe the cultural and economic interactions between Vijayanagara and foreign traders.
Answer: Vijayanagara’s interactions with foreign traders were marked by vibrant economic exchanges and cultural influences. The empire imported horses from Arabia and Central Asia, which were crucial for effective cavalry in warfare. This trade was initially controlled by Arab traders, but local communities of merchants known as kudirai chettis or horse merchants also participated. From 1498, the Portuguese entered the scene, establishing trading and military stations along the west coast. Their superior military technology, particularly muskets, enabled them to become significant players in the region’s tangled politics.
Krishnadeva Raya emphasized improving harbours and encouraging commerce, facilitating imports of elephants, precious gems, sandalwood, pearls, and other goods. He advised treating foreign merchants well to ensure their loyalty and prevent resources from reaching enemies. Markets within Vijayanagara dealt in spices, textiles, and precious stones, reflecting a wealthy population that demanded exotic goods. The revenue derived from trade significantly contributed to the prosperity of the state.
Additionally, the rulers of Vijayanagara drew on diverse traditions, including those from Maharashtra, to create an imperial culture, evident in the worship of deities like Vitthala. The empire maintained diplomatic relations with contemporary powers, sometimes supporting claimants to power in the Sultanates, showcasing both economic and cultural interconnections.
54. Explain the process through which Vijayanagara was rediscovered and documented over the years, including the contribution of archaeologists and travellers.
Answer: The rediscovery and documentation of Vijayanagara began in the early nineteenth century. In 1800, Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian employed by the English East India Company, prepared the first survey map of Hampi based on the memories of priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi. Subsequently, from 1856, photographers like Alexander Greenlaw recorded the monuments, enabling scholars to study them further. Epigraphists started collecting inscriptions from temples at Hampi as early as 1836, collating information with accounts of foreign travellers and literature written in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit. Travellers such as Nicolo de Conti, Abdur Razzaq, Afanasii Nikitin, Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes, and Fernao Nuniz provided detailed descriptions of the city and its life.
Conservation efforts began under John Marshall in 1902, and in 1976, Hampi was recognized as a site of national importance. An important project launched in the early 1980s involved extensive surveys and recording techniques to document material remains in detail. Scholars from around the world worked for nearly twenty years to compile and preserve this information. The Archaeological Survey of India and the Karnataka Department of Archaeology and Museums played key roles in preserving the site. In 1986, UNESCO declared Hampi a World Heritage site. These efforts combined oral traditions, archaeological finds, inscriptions, and architectural studies to reconstruct the history of Vijayanagara.
55. Discuss the characteristics and purpose of rituals held at Vijayanagara, particularly those centred around the mahanavami dibba and the temples.
Answer: The rituals associated with the mahanavami dibba coincided with Mahanavami, the great ninth day of the ten-day Hindu festival during the autumn months of September and October, known variously as Dusehra, Durga Puja, or Navaratri. These ceremonies included worship of the image, worship of the state horse, and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals. Dances, wrestling matches, and processions of caparisoned horses, elephants, and chariots, along with soldiers, were organized. Ritual presentations before the king and his guests by the chief nayakas and subordinate kings marked the occasion. These ceremonies carried deep symbolic meanings. On the last day of the festival, the king inspected his army and the armies of the nayakas in a grand ceremony in an open field. On this occasion, the nayakas brought rich gifts for the king as well as the stipulated tribute. The rituals displayed the king’s prestige, power, and suzerainty.
Temples within the sacred centre also hosted various activities, such as music, dance, drama, and celebrations of divine weddings, all of which reinforced the ruler’s association with the divine and legitimized their authority.
56. Analyse the impact of military strategy and fortifications on the long-term security and sustainability of Vijayanagara Empire.
Answer: Fortifications played a critical role in the security and sustainability of the Vijayanagara Empire. The city was enclosed by massive fortress walls, with seven lines of forts noted by Abdur Razzaq. These walls not only surrounded the urban areas but also enclosed agricultural tracts, cultivated fields, gardens, and houses. This strategy aimed to protect the agricultural belt itself, ensuring food supply during sieges that could last for months or even years. Square or rectangular bastions projected outwards, and the stone blocks were wedge-shaped, held together without mortar or cementing agents. Gateways leading into the fortified settlement featured arches and domes, reflecting Indo-Islamic architectural influences.
However, despite these elaborate fortifications, the empire faced challenges. The adventurous policy of Rama Raya, who tried to play one Sultan against another, led to an alliance of the Sultanates against Vijayanagara. In 1565, the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Golconda defeated Rama Raya at Rakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota), sacked the city of Vijayanagara, and caused its abandonment. Thus, while fortifications provided short-term security, they could not prevent the empire’s eventual collapse due to shifting political alliances and military defeats.
57. Describe the role of temples in establishing political legitimacy and social order in the Vijayanagara Empire.
Answer: Temples in the Vijayanagara Empire served as significant religious, social, cultural, and economic centres. Rulers encouraged temple building to associate themselves with the divine, often identifying the deity with the king. Temples functioned as centres of learning and received land and resources from rulers and others for their maintenance. Constructing, repairing, and maintaining temples were important means for rulers to gain support and recognition for their power, wealth, and piety.
The choice of Vijayanagara as a capital was likely inspired by the existence of shrines like those of Virupaksha and Pampadevi. The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha, and all royal orders were signed “Shri Virupaksha.” Rulers used titles like “Hindu Suratrana,” indicating close links with the gods. Royal portrait sculptures were displayed in temples, and the king’s visits to temples were treated as important state occasions, accompanied by important nayakas.
Temples like the Virupaksha and Vitthala temples showcased immense structures such as raya gopurams and mandapas, symbolizing imperial authority. Halls within the temples were used for various purposes, including music, dance, drama, and celebrations of divine weddings, reinforcing the ruler’s legitimacy and social order.
Additional MCQs
1. Who brought the ruins at Hampi to light?
A. Colonel Mackenzie
B. Alexander Greenlaw
C. J.F. Fleet
D. John Marshall
Answer: A. Colonel Mackenzie
2. In what year did Colin Mackenzie survey Vijayanagara?
A. 1800
B. 1754
C. 1856
D. 1876
Answer: A. 1800
3. Which temple’s priests provided initial information about Vijayanagara?
A. Virupaksha
B. Brihadishvara
C. Hazara Rama
D. Vitthala
Answer: A. Virupaksha
4. In what year did photographers begin recording Vijayanagara monuments?
A. 1800
B. 1856
C. 1876
D. 1902
Answer: B. 1856
5. In what year did epigraphists start collecting inscriptions at Hampi?
A. 1800
B. 1836
C. 1856
D. 1876
Answer: B. 1836
6. Who founded the Vijayanagara Empire?
A. Harihara and Bukka
B. Krishnadeva Raya
C. Rama Raya
D. Abdur Razzaq
Answer: A. Harihara and Bukka
7. In which year was the Vijayanagara Empire founded?
A. 1206
B. 1336
C. 1498
D. 1565
Answer: B. 1336
8. Which rulers did the Vijayanagara kings compete with on the northern frontier?
A. Deccan Sultans
B. Cholas
C. Hoysalas
D. Bahmani
Answer: A. Deccan Sultans
9. What was the empire known as by its contemporaries?
A. Karnataka samrajyamu
B. Yavana kingdom
C. Hindu Sultanate
D. Deccan Kingdom
Answer: A. Karnataka samrajyamu
10. Which commodity was crucial for warfare in Vijayanagara?
A. Horses
B. Elephants
C. Gems
D. Textiles
Answer: A. Horses
11. Which traders initially controlled the horse trade?
A. Arab traders
B. Portuguese
C. Russian merchants
D. Chinese traders
Answer: A. Arab traders
12. Which European nation arrived on the west coast in 1498?
A. Spanish
B. French
C. Portuguese
D. British
Answer: C. Portuguese
13. What military technology did the Portuguese use?
A. Muskets
B. Cannons
C. Swords
D. Bows
Answer: A. Muskets
14. What does the term ‘Gajapati’ mean?
A. Lord of elephants
B. Lord of horses
C. Lord of men
D. Lord of kings
Answer: A. Lord of elephants
15. What title did the rayas use?
A. Narapati
B. Ashvapati
C. Suratrana
D. Samraj
Answer: A. Narapati
16. Which dynasty was the first ruling dynasty of Vijayanagara?
A. Sangama
B. Saluva
C. Tuluva
D. Aravidu
Answer: A. Sangama
17. Which dynasty replaced the Sangama dynasty in 1485?
A. Tuluva
B. Saluva
C. Aravidu
D. Bahmani
Answer: B. Saluva
18. Which dynasty did Krishnadeva Raya belong to?
A. Sangama
B. Saluva
C. Tuluva
D. Aravidu
Answer: C. Tuluva
19. Which significant territorial acquisition occurred in 1512?
A. Raichur doab
B. Goa
C. Penukonda
D. Chandragiri
Answer: A. Raichur doab
20. In what year were the rulers of Orissa subdued?
A. 1512
B. 1514
C. 1520
D. 1529
Answer: B. 1514
21. In what year was the Sultan of Bijapur defeated?
A. 1514
B. 1520
C. 1529
D. 1565
Answer: B. 1520
22. In what year did Krishnadeva Raya die?
A. 1512
B. 1520
C. 1529
D. 1565
Answer: C. 1529
23. Who led the army at Rakshasi-Tangadi in 1565?
A. Krishnadeva Raya
B. Rama Raya
C. Harihara
D. Bukka
Answer: B. Rama Raya
24. What major event occurred in 1565?
A. City sacked
B. Empire founded
C. Treaty signed
D. Temple built
Answer: A. City sacked
25. Who composed the work Amuktamalyada?
A. Harihara
B. Bukka
C. Krishnadeva Raya
D. Rama Raya
Answer: C. Krishnadeva Raya
26. In which language was Amuktamalyada composed?
A. Kannada
B. Telugu
C. Tamil
D. Sanskrit
Answer: B. Telugu
27. What was the major political innovation of Vijayanagara?
A. Iqta system
B. Amara-nayaka system
C. Feudalism
D. Monarchy
Answer: B. Amara-nayaka system
28. What did the nayakas collect from the people?
A. Taxes
B. Tribute
C. Rent
D. Tithes
Answer: A. Taxes
29. What was one function of the nayakas?
A. Tax collection
B. Temple building
C. Craft production
D. Writing inscriptions
Answer: A. Tax collection
30. Which system influenced the amara-nayaka system?
A. Feudal system
B. Iqta system
C. Zamindari system
D. Caste system
Answer: B. Iqta system
31. What is a distinctive physical feature of Vijayanagara’s capital?
A. Fortification walls
B. Tall towers
C. Wooden bridges
D. Stone arches
Answer: A. Fortification walls
32. Which river formed a natural basin around Vijayanagara?
A. Krishna
B. Tungabhadra
C. Pennar
D. Cauvery
Answer: B. Tungabhadra
33. What is the name of the important tank built in the early fifteenth century?
A. Hiriya tank
B. Kamalapuram tank
C. Virupaksha tank
D. Lotus tank
Answer: B. Kamalapuram tank
34. What is the name of the prominent canal in Vijayanagara?
A. Hiriya canal
B. Royal canal
C. Temple canal
D. Victory canal
Answer: A. Hiriya canal
35. Who built the Hiriya canal?
A. Tuluva kings
B. Saluva kings
C. Sangama kings
D. Aravidu kings
Answer: C. Sangama kings
36. How many lines of forts did Abdur Razzaq mention?
A. Five
B. Six
C. Seven
D. Eight
Answer: C. Seven
37. What shape were the stone blocks used in the fort walls?
A. Rectangular
B. Circular
C. Wedge-shaped
D. Triangular
Answer: C. Wedge-shaped
38. Which architectural style was introduced by Turkish Sultans?
A. Gothic
B. Indo-Islamic
C. Renaissance
D. Baroque
Answer: B. Indo-Islamic
39. Which building feature includes a dome in Vijayanagara architecture?
A. Gateways
B. Gopurams
C. Mandapas
D. Tanks
Answer: A. Gateways
40. What architectural feature signified the temple from a distance?
A. Minaret
B. Gopuram
C. Pillar
D. Arch
Answer: B. Gopuram
41. Which imported porcelain was found in the urban core?
A. Italian
B. Chinese
C. Persian
D. Arabic
Answer: B. Chinese
42. Which traveller described the houses of ordinary people?
A. Abdur Razzaq
B. Duarte Barbosa
C. Domingo Paes
D. Fernao Nuniz
Answer: B. Duarte Barbosa
43. What material were most houses of ordinary people primarily made of?
A. Brick
B. Stone
C. Thatched
D. Wood
Answer: C. Thatched
44. What served as water sources for ordinary town dwellers?
A. Wells
B. Rivers
C. Fountains
D. Cisterns
Answer: A. Wells
45. In which part of the city was the royal centre located?
A. North
B. East
C. South-west
D. West
Answer: C. South-west
46. Approximately how many temples were in the royal centre?
A. Over 20
B. Over 40
C. Over 60
D. Over 80
Answer: C. Over 60
47. What is the “mahanavami dibba”?
A. Temple hall
B. Fortress gate
C. Massive platform
D. Water tank
Answer: C. Massive platform
48. What is the approximate area of the mahanavami dibba’s base?
A. 5,000 sq.ft
B. 11,000 sq.ft
C. 15,000 sq.ft
D. 20,000 sq.ft
Answer: B. 11,000 sq.ft
49. What is the approximate height of the mahanavami dibba?
A. 20 ft
B. 30 ft
C. 40 ft
D. 50 ft
Answer: C. 40 ft
50. Which festival coincided with the rituals at the mahanavami dibba?
A. Diwali
B. Holi
C. Mahanavami
D. Pongal
Answer: C. Mahanavami
51. How many towers did the Lotus Mahal have?
A. Seven
B. Eight
C. Nine
D. Ten
Answer: C. Nine
52. Which temple’s hall was built by Krishnadeva Raya?
A. Vitthala
B. Virupaksha
C. Hazara Rama
D. Lotus Mahal
Answer: B. Virupaksha
53. Which temple has a shrine designed as a chariot?
A. Virupaksha
B. Vitthala
C. Hazara Rama
D. Lotus Mahal
Answer: B. Vitthala
54. What extends from the temple gopuram in Vijayanagara?
A. Chariot streets
B. Market lanes
C. Guard towers
D. Water channels
Answer: A. Chariot streets
55. What are the temple streets paved with?
A. Mud
B. Sand
C. Stone slabs
D. Bricks
Answer: C. Stone slabs
56. Which architectural feature demarcates temple complexes?
A. Columns
B. Gopurams
C. Domes
D. Arches
Answer: B. Gopurams
57. In what year was Hampi declared a World Heritage site?
A. 1902
B. 1976
C. 1986
D. 2000
Answer: C. 1986
58. Into how many squares was the area divided in the mapping project?
A. 15
B. 20
C. 25
D. 30
Answer: C. 25
59. Who began documenting inscriptions on temple walls in 1876?
A. Colin Mackenzie
B. Alexander Greenlaw
C. J.F. Fleet
D. John Marshall
Answer: C. J.F. Fleet
60. In which year did conservation begin under John Marshall?
A. 1856
B. 1876
C. 1902
D. 1986
Answer: C. 1902
61. Who was appointed the first Surveyor General of India?
A. Colin Mackenzie
B. Alexander Greenlaw
C. J.F. Fleet
D. John Marshall
Answer: A. Colin Mackenzie
62. In what year was the Delhi Sultanate established?
A. 1206
B. 1336
C. 1498
D. 1510
Answer: A. 1206
63. When was the Vijayanagara Empire established?
A. 1206
B. 1336
C. 1435
D. 1510
Answer: B. 1336
64. In what year was the Bahmani kingdom established?
A. 1336
B. 1347
C. 1435
D. 1490
Answer: B. 1347
65. When was the Gajapati kingdom of Orissa established?
A. 1347
B. 1435
C. 1490
D. 1510
Answer: B. 1435
66. In what year did the Portuguese conquer Goa?
A. 1498
B. 1510
C. 1518
D. 1526
Answer: B. 1510
67. In what year was the Mughal empire established?
A. 1510
B. 1518
C. 1526
D. 1565
Answer: C. 1526
68. In what year did the Sultanate of Golconda emerge?
A. 1510
B. 1518
C. 1529
D. 1565
Answer: B. 1518
69. In what year did Colin Mackenzie visit Vijayanagara?
A. 1800
B. 1856
C. 1876
D. 1902
Answer: A. 1800
70. Who took the first detailed photographs of Hampi in 1856?
A. Colin Mackenzie
B. Alexander Greenlaw
C. J.F. Fleet
D. John Marshall
Answer: B. Alexander Greenlaw
71. In what year did J.F. Fleet begin documenting inscriptions?
A. 1800
B. 1836
C. 1856
D. 1876
Answer: D. 1876
72. Who continued the building traditions of Vijayanagara?
A. Nayakas
B. Cholas
C. Portuguese
D. Sultans
Answer: A. Nayakas
73. What title did the Vijayanagara kings use?
A. Hindu Suratrana
B. Narapati
C. Ashvapati
D. Samraj
Answer: A. Hindu Suratrana
74. How were royal orders signed by the Vijayanagara kings?
A. With a seal
B. Shri Virupaksha
C. In Sanskrit
D. In Telugu
Answer: B. Shri Virupaksha
75. Hampi is derived from the name of which goddess?
A. Lakshmi
B. Pampadevi
C. Parvati
D. Saraswati
Answer: B. Pampadevi
76. Which languages were used in Vijayanagara literature?
A. Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, Sanskrit
B. Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi, Bengali
C. Marathi, Gujarati, Oriya, Malayalam
D. English, French, Portuguese, Spanish
Answer: A. Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, Sanskrit
77. Who was the Persian ambassador that visited Vijayanagara?
A. Abdur Razzaq
B. Afanasii Nikitin
C. Duarte Barbosa
D. Domingo Paes
Answer: A. Abdur Razzaq
78. Who compared Vijayanagara to Rome?
A. Alexander Greenlaw
B. J.F. Fleet
C. Domingo Paes
D. Fernao Nuniz
Answer: C. Domingo Paes
79. What is the meaning of ‘Vijayanagara’?
A. City of victory
B. City of gods
C. Fortified city
D. Royal city
Answer: A. City of victory
80. What local name did people use for Vijayanagara?
A. Hampi
B. Bijapur
C. Golconda
D. Bidar
Answer: A. Hampi
81. Which ruling lineage took control in 1542?
A. Sangama
B. Saluva
C. Tuluva
D. Aravidu
Answer: D. Aravidu
82. What lined the important roads from temple gateways?
A. Gardens
B. Bazaars
C. Canals
D. Walls
Answer: B. Bazaars
83. In the painting, what did Mackenzie’s peon hold?
A. Map
B. Telescope
C. Sword
D. Book
Answer: B. Telescope
84. Which deities’ marriage is celebrated annually?
A. Lakshmi and Vishnu
B. Virupaksha and Pampadevi
C. Shiva and Parvati
D. Rama and Sita
Answer: B. Virupaksha and Pampadevi
85. Who described the Vijayanagara markets as “overflowing with abundance”?
A. Duarte Barbosa
B. Domingo Paes
C. Fernao Nuniz
D. Abdur Razzaq
Answer: C. Fernao Nuniz
86. Which temple displays panels depicting scenes from the Ramayana?
A. Virupaksha
B. Hazara Rama
C. Vitthala
D. Lotus Mahal
Answer: B. Hazara Rama
87. Whose statue is placed on the gopuram at Chidambaram?
A. Harihara
B. Bukka
C. Krishnadeva Raya
D. Rama Raya
Answer: C. Krishnadeva Raya
88. What was not used in the construction of the fort walls?
A. Mortar
B. Rubble
C. Earth
D. Stone
Answer: A. Mortar
89. What filled the inner portion of the fort walls?
A. Water
B. Rubble
C. Sand
D. Timber
Answer: B. Rubble
90. Which ruler was described as having signs of smallpox?
A. Harihara
B. Bukka
C. Krishnadeva Raya
D. Rama Raya
Answer: C. Krishnadeva Raya
91. What does the word “Yavana” refer to?
A. Arabs
B. Greeks
C. Persians
D. Turks
Answer: B. Greeks
92. What did Krishnadeva Raya advise to improve for boosting trade?
A. Roads
B. Harbours
C. Temples
D. Forts
Answer: B. Harbours
93. What were the local horse traders called?
A. Kudirai chettis
B. Nayakas
C. Pandits
D. Merchants
Answer: A. Kudirai chettis
94. Which language is NOT mentioned in the Vijayanagara inscriptions?
A. Telugu
B. Kannada
C. Tamil
D. Hindi
Answer: D. Hindi
95. Which dynasty ruled until the end of the seventeenth century?
A. Sangama
B. Saluva
C. Tuluva
D. Aravidu
Answer: D. Aravidu
96. Which fortification technique was used to protect agricultural land?
A. Moats
B. Multiple walls
C. Watchtowers
D. Barricades
Answer: B. Multiple walls
97. Which art form decorated the base of the mahanavami dibba?
A. Frescoes
B. Relief carvings
C. Mosaics
D. Calligraphy
Answer: B. Relief carvings
98. Which Italian trader visited Vijayanagara?
A. Nicolo de Conti
B. Afanasii Nikitin
C. Duarte Barbosa
D. Domingo Paes
Answer: A. Nicolo de Conti
99. Which Russian merchant visited Vijayanagara?
A. Nicolo de Conti
B. Afanasii Nikitin
C. Duarte Barbosa
D. Domingo Paes
Answer: B. Afanasii Nikitin
100. Which structure’s platform had slots for wooden pillars?
A. Lotus Mahal
B. Audience hall
C. Mahanavami dibba
D. Queen’s bath
Answer: B. Audience hall
101. Which term is derived from the Sanskrit word “samara”?
A. Nayaka
B. Amara
C. Suratrana
D. Iqta
Answer: B. Amara
102. Which traveller was an ambassador sent by the Persian ruler?
A. Nicolo de Conti
B. Abdur Razzaq
C. Duarte Barbosa
D. Domingo Paes
Answer: B. Abdur Razzaq
103. Which structure is known for its carved reliefs on its base?
A. Lotus Mahal
B. Mahanavami dibba
C. Virupaksha temple
D. Hazara Rama temple
Answer: B. Mahanavami dibba
104. Which ruler is credited with building temples and adding gopurams?
A. Harihara
B. Bukka
C. Krishnadeva Raya
D. Rama Raya
Answer: C. Krishnadeva Raya
105. Which structure’s design included slots for wooden pillars?
A. Palace
B. Audience hall
C. Mosque
D. Bazaar
Answer: B. Audience hall
106. Which term refers to a high noble in Persian?
A. Amir
B. Sultan
C. Rajah
D. Pasha
Answer: A. Amir
107. Which water tank was associated with irrigation and royal supply?
A. Kamalapuram tank
B. Hiriya tank
C. Lotus tank
D. Virupaksha tank
Answer: A. Kamalapuram tank
108. Which building did the mapping project document extensively?
A. Bazaar
B. Temple
C. Fort
D. Monument
Answer: B. Temple
109. Which traveller from Russia visited Vijayanagara?
A. Nicolo de Conti
B. Afanasii Nikitin
C. Duarte Barbosa
D. Domingo Paes
Answer: B. Afanasii Nikitin
110. Which architectural feature in Vijayanagara was inspired by Indo-Islamic techniques?
A. Gopuram arch
B. Temple dome
C. Gateway arch
D. Fort wall
Answer: C. Gateway arch
