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Assam through the ages: AHSEC Class 12 History notes
Get summaries, questions, answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF and guide of Class 12 (second year) History textbook, chapter Assam though the Ages which is part of the syllabus of students studying under AHSEC/ASSEB (Assam Board). These solutions, however, should only be treated as references and can be modified/changed.
If you notice any errors in the notes, please mention them in the comments
Summary
The history of Assam begins in ancient times when it was known as Pragjyotisha and later as Kamrupa. The land has two main valleys formed by the Brahmaputra and Barak rivers. Early people who lived here belonged to different groups. Archaeologists have found stone tools from the Old, New, and Middle Stone Ages, showing that people have lived here for a very long time. The first major kingdom was Kamrupa, ruled by kings like Bhaskar Varman. The economy was based on farming, with rice being the main crop. People also traded goods like timber and cloth with other regions. Society was led by kings, and most people were farmers who also practised crafts like weaving and bamboo work.
In the mediaeval period, the Ahom kingdom became powerful. Society was organised under the Paik system, where adult males had to serve the state. Travellers from other lands visited Assam and wrote about it. An English traveller named Ralph Fitch described the Koch kingdom and its general, Chilarai, who was nicknamed the “Kite-King” because he moved his army very quickly, like a swift kite bird. Another writer, Shihabuddin Talish, described the Ahom capital, Garhgaon, and the customs of its people. During this time, new religious ideas spread. The Sufi saint Azan Pir composed devotional songs called Zikirs, and the reformer Srimanta Sankardev taught a new form of Vaishnavism. The Ahoms also introduced the practice of writing detailed historical chronicles called Buranjis.
In 1826, the British took control of Assam. They introduced new laws and a system of paying taxes in cash, which was difficult for the local people who were used to the Paik system. This led to hardship and several rebellions. Early uprisings were led by figures like Gomdhar Konwar and the Khasi chief Tirat Sing. During the Great Indian Revolt of 1857, a noble named Maniram Dewan tried to organise a rebellion in Assam. He was captured by the British and executed. In the late 1800s, farmers also held large protests against high taxes.
The struggle for India’s freedom, led by Mahatma Gandhi, was also strong in Assam. Many people, including women and students, joined movements like the Civil Disobedience Movement and the Quit India Movement. When India was partitioned in 1947, the district of Sylhet was separated from Assam and joined East Pakistan after a referendum. After independence, Assam became a state of India, and Gopinath Bordoloi became its first chief minister. This marked the beginning of a new period of development, with the establishment of new schools, colleges, and a university.
Textbook solutions
Answer in 100-150 words
1. Make a list of the tools of the Palaeolithic Age of Assam. Did they also know the use of bricks?
Answer: Some stone tools of Palaeolithic culture have been found in the Garo hills, Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur. These include stone tools, whetstones, grinding stones and pieces of bones.
Assam did not lag behind in preparing them. Some inscriptions and ancient literary works refer to brick houses, and brick temples or temples with brick walls have also been discovered. The discovery of a wall at Ambari, Guwahati, which might have belonged to a period between the 10th-11th Centuries, also indicates the use of brick. Furthermore, brick walls of early Assam have been found at Kundilnagar.
2. Give a brief description of Gargaon as the capital of Medieval Assam.
Answer: Garhgaon was made the capital of Assam by king Suklengmung. The city of Garhgaon had four gates of stone set in mud, from each of which to the Raja’s palace, an extremely strong, high and wide embankment was constructed for the passage of men. Around the city, in place of a wall, there was an encompassing bamboo plantation running continuously for two Kos or more in width. The city appeared to be circular, wide, and an aggregation of villages.
The houses of the inhabitants were built in a scattered fashion. Near the Raja’s palace, on both banks of the Dikhu river, the houses were numerous and there was a narrow bazar road. The inhabitants would store one year’s supply of food of all kinds in their houses. The Raja’s audience hall, called Solong, was 120 cubits long and 30 cubits broad, standing on 66 pillars. Owing to the excess of damp, it was not the custom to make houses on the surface of the ground; they were built on platforms resting on wooden pillars.
3. How did Maniram express anti-British Senti ments and with what effects?
Answer: Maniram Dewan, who was said to be the brain behind an uprising, expressed his anti-British sentiments after being disappointed with their policy of discrimination towards the locals, particularly in the distribution of wasteland. He submitted a memorandum to A. J. Mofat Mill, in which he emphasised demands for a better rule in Assam and the restoration of Kanderpeswar Singha to the throne. When no heed was paid to his plea, he went to Calcutta to press the Company government to fulfill his demands, but in vain. While in Calcutta, he learned about the outbreak of the Great Revolt and tried to organise it in Assam as well.
The effect was that a letter he wrote to his supporters in Assam fell into the hands of the British, and Maniram and all his associates were arrested. The British government took prompt action: Kanderpeswar was exiled to Calcutta, while Maniram and Piyali Barua were hanged at Jorhat. They were not even given a chance for appeal in self-defence.
4. Write a note on Azan Pir.
Answer: Azan Pir was a Muslim Saint whose Dargah stands at Saraguri chapori, 22 kilometers from Sibsagar. He was the first to compose Zikir songs in the Assamese language, and about 160 of these Zikirs and Jaris have been collected. His original name was Shahmilan, and he came to Assam in the 17th Century. He used to call Muslims to prayer by giving the Azan and was therefore named Azari Pir. He was punished by king Gadadhar Singha, who, after being convinced by his exceptional spiritual attainments, patronised him in 1686. The Zikirs and Jaris are sung accompanied by rhythmic clapping of palms. On the day of “Urs,” thousands of devotees gather at his Dargah to pay homage.
5. How did the British government try to stop students’ participation in the civil disovedience movement in Assam? What were the effects?
Answer: To stop student participation in the civil disobedience movement, the British government, through the Director of Public Instructions in Assam, Mr. JA Cunningham, issued a circular on May 19th, 1930. This circular was sent to all Heads of schools and colleges and required that parents and students give an undertaking of non-participation in political activities.
The effect of this action was that the circular added fuel to the fire. The movement got intensified, and national schools were founded at Guwahati, Tezpur, Sibsagar, Dibrugarh and Silchar. The government put heavy hands on the participants, but even then, non-cooperation in offices, law courts, and educational institutions continued.
Answer in 250-300 words
6. Give a pen picture of the life of farmers in ancient Assam.
Answer: In ancient Assam, the life of a farmer was deeply rooted in the land and village community, operating under the ultimate authority of the king. While tradition, as stated by Manu, held that an agriculture field belongs to him who first removes its weed, the control of rural areas was vested in the monarch. In tribal regions, land was typically owned by the community, with ownership subdivided among different families.
Farmers generally resided in villages and maintained an aversion for what they considered the heterodox nature of town life. Consequently, all types of farmers, including landless farmers, small peasants, and agri-labourers, confined themselves to the villages. According to Narada, agriculturists held the second rank of importance in rural areas. The economic system included hired labourers, whose pay scale varied from one-tenth to a third or fifth part of the crops. A hired labourer who neglected his duty faced a penalty where the king would impose double as much fine as the wages and pay the same as compensation to the owner of the soil.
The staple crop was paddy, with three varieties—sali, bao, and ahu—being cultivated. However, due to heavy rainfall and frequent floods, farmers did not prefer to grow ravi crops. Besides paddy, the land yielded jute, jack-fruits, amalaka, rudraksa, sugar-cane, and various other fruits and vegetables. The hill people, in particular, preferred Jhum cultivation. The farmer class as a whole was simply dressed and religious by nature. They had some side-occupations like spinning, weaving, beekeeping, and crafts involving cane, bamboo, and wood. They also enjoyed entertainments such as songs, dances, sports, and various festivals, which formed an integral part of their cultural life.
7. Did you find any exggageration in the Account of Ralph Fitch or Sahabuddin Talish?
Answer: The accounts of both Ralph Fitch and Shihabuddin Talish, as presented, contain statements that appear to be exaggerations or require significant qualification.
Ralph Fitch, who visited the Koch kingdom, described its people as all gentiles who would kill nothing. He claimed they maintained hospitals for sheep, goats, dogs, cats, birds, and for all living creatures, keeping them until they died of old age and even giving meat to the ants. Edward Gait, a later historian, finds it difficult to explain the statement made by this traveler regarding the great tenderness shown by the people for animal life. Gait suggests Fitch’s claim that Sukladhvaj was the Raja merely shows the extent of his power, and that Naranarayan, being deeply religious, might have established such hospitals under Jain or Vaishnava influence.
Shihabuddin Talish’s account of Assam, Fathyah-i-Ibriyah, contains even more pronounced exaggerations. He describes the king as an insane fellow who was more sunk in conceit and pride and more addicted to shedding blood than his ancestors, claiming that for a slight fault he would execute a whole family and on the least suspicion he would kill a whole generation. He further asserts that the people of the country do not belong to any faith, have no restriction as regards castes and food, and that except for human flesh they eat every kind of meat. Talish characterizes them as unrivalled in cruelty, deception, and rudeness. The text itself signals the hyperbolic nature of these claims by prompting the reader to identify the exaggerations within his account.
8. “Buranjis are an authentic and dependable source of history”. Do you agree?
Answer: The Buranjis, a unique contribution of the Ahoms, are regarded as a valuable and largely trustworthy source of history. The Ahom kings encouraged their chroniclers to provide a systematic and complete study of important events with accurate information. The very word Buranji means a store-house of knowledge, and the information they contain regarding incidents, dates, and chronology is often confirmed by other sources like rock inscriptions, copper plates, coins, and Persian chronicles. They are rich in detail, supplying evidence not only of kings and dynasties but also of culture and civilisation, and even record intimate talks of ministers, secrets of the royal court, and diplomatic correspondence.
However, their authenticity and dependability are not absolute. The text notes that the dates of Buranjis are not always dependable. A significant limitation is their scope; they do not speak much of the common people, a focus that was reinforced when King Siva Singha directed that Buranjis should contain only the names and transactions of the king. Furthermore, in most Buranjis, the authors are not mentioned, which makes it difficult to judge whether they are impartial or not. The fact that Kirtichandra Barbarua, a powerful official, destroyed many Buranjis in a bonfire because one of them mentioned he was a false Ahom demonstrates that their content was politically sensitive and could be suppressed or eliminated. Therefore, while Buranjis are an indispensable and authentic source for the history of Assam, they must be approached with a critical understanding of their limitations, biases, and the political contexts in which they were created and preserved.
9. What steps the British take to ward colonialisation of Assam? How did it effect on the country side?
Answer: The British took decisive political, administrative, and economic steps to establish their colonial rule in Assam. The process began in earnest after the Anglo-Burmese war, when the British, by misappropriating Clause 2 of the Treaty of Yandaboo of 1826, initiated the annexation of Assam and her dependencies and neighbours both in plains and hills. They established new administrative measures, placing Assam under the government of Bengal and appointing a commissioner at Guwahati. This structure was further solidified with the creation of six districts and, in 1874, the formation of the province of Assam, which incorporated Sylhet and all hitherto annexed hill tracts. A key legislative measure was the Inner Line Regulation Act of 1873, which controlled movement into the hill areas.
These colonial policies had profound effects on the countryside. The common people, accustomed to the traditional paik and Khel systems, felt uncomfortable with the new land revenue system which required them to pay tax in cash. They were not used to any deal in cash and found it difficult to collect Rs.2/- per year to pay the land revenue. The British also levied taxes on formerly tax-free (Nishkar) lands and stopped grants to temples. This new market-based economy was difficult for the masses to cope with, and the influx of cheaper foreign goods badly affected cottage industries, leading to widespread poverty and indebtness in the rural areas. The arrival of Mahajans and moneylenders to the nook and corner of Assam added to the miseries of the people. Simultaneously, the introduction of tea plantations and mining changed the landscape, leading to the emergence of new townships and a tendency among people to adopt modern lifestyles. This also created a demand for labour, which, when not met by the local populace, resulted in an oxdus of the labourers from outside Assam.
10. Draw a map of Assam and locate the historical places in it. Also mention the importance of two of such places.
Answer:
The importance of two historical places is as follows:
Hajo/Hazo: Hajo remains a pilgrimage site for Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, and others. A rare integration and communal harmony exist there, where the Dargah and the Hayagriba Madav Temple stand at the same site without any discomfort from either side.
Tezpur: The temple ruins of Dahaparbatiya at Tezpur possess the unique distinction of having the remnants of one of the oldest temples of Assam. The pride of this complex is the door frame of stone with exclusive designs of Gupta art.
11. Draw a map of Assam and put X sign of the spots where archaeological speciments are found. Also write briefly about the specimens which attracted you most.
Answer:
Among the most notable specimens are:
The Dahaparbatiya Door Frame: Found in Tezpur, this stone door frame is the pride of a temple complex that contains remnants of one of the oldest temples in Assam. It features exclusive designs of Gupta art.
The Ambari Wall: A wall 26 meters in length and 45 centimeters in breadth was discovered at Ambari, Guwahati. This discovery, along with sculptures found there, shows a marked influence of Gupta art and suggests the use of brick in a period between the 10th-11th Centuries.
12. Draw a map of Assam locating the sites of the following and write the historical importance of any two of them (not more than 50 words on each)
(a) Haruperswar
(b) Hajo
(c) Sadiya
(d) Silchar
(e) Bhalukpung
(f) Guwahati
(g) Goalpara
(h) Barpeta
(i) Sibsagarh
(j) Jorhat
Answer:
The historical importance of two of these sites is:
Guwahati: Many sculptures have been dug out at Ambari, Guwahati, with a marked influence of Gupta art. Its centrical position made it necessary for the British to make Guwahati the headquarters of Assam.
Sibsagar: The ruins of some temples found at Sibsagar are assigned to the 9th or 10th Centuries. The cannons of the Ahom kingdom are now kept near the DC’s court at Sibsagar for public audience.
Extras
Additional MCQs
1. Which river enters Assam from the north-east frontier and traverses a distance of about 805 kilometres?
(a) Ganges
(b) Brahmaputra
(c) Barak
(d) Mahanadi
Answer: (b) Brahmaputra
2. Which of the following is NOT listed among the early inhabitants of Assam?
(a) Austro-Asiatic
(b) Negritos
(c) Dravidians
(d) Tibeto-Burman
Answer: (d) Tibeto-Burman
3. The Neolithic people of Assam primarily practised which type of cultivation?
(a) Terrace cultivation
(b) Shifting (jhum) cultivation
(c) Irrigated wet-rice cultivation
(d) Legume rotation
Answer: (b) Shifting (jhum) cultivation
4. Which material did Neolithic settlers of Assam NOT use for tools according to archaeological finds?
(a) Stone
(b) Bone
(c) Whetstone
(d) Copper
Answer: (d) Copper
5. The brick wall discovered at Ambari, Guwahati, is believed to date from which centuries?
(a) 8th–9th centuries
(b) 10th–11th centuries
(c) 12th–13th centuries
(d) 14th–15th centuries
Answer: (b) 10th–11th centuries
6. Which of the following crops was NOT mentioned as being cultivated in ancient Kamrupa?
(a) Paddy
(b) Jack-fruit
(c) Wheat
(d) Sugar-cane
Answer: (c) Wheat
7. Which Chinese traveller visited Kamrupa during the reign of Bhaskar Varman?
(a) Marco Polo
(b) Hiuen Tsang
(c) Faxian
(d) Ibn Battuta
Answer: (b) Hiuen Tsang
8. Which Assamese cloth was particularly in demand outside the country?
(a) Woollen cloth
(b) Silk brocade
(c) Muga cloth
(d) Jute mat
Answer: (c) Muga cloth
9. Ancient Assamese kings often performed which ritual after securing a victory in war?
(a) Goat sacrifice
(b) Horse sacrifice
(c) Elephant sacrifice
(d) Cow sacrifice
Answer: (b) Horse sacrifice
10. In which language were most ancient Assamese inscriptions composed?
(a) Prakrit
(b) Pali
(c) Sanskrit
(d) Assamese
Answer: (c) Sanskrit
11. The stone door frame at Dah-Parbatia temple is noted for its influence from which art style?
(a) Mauryan
(b) Gupta
(c) Chola
(d) Pallava
Answer: (b) Gupta
12. Who authored the Assamese text “Namghosa”?
(a) Sankardev
(b) Madhavdev
(c) Damodardev
(d) Haridev
Answer: (b) Madhavdev
13. Which saint is credited with founding the Neo-Vaishnava faith in Assam?
(a) Damodardev
(b) Azan Pir
(c) Sankardev
(d) Giasuddin Aulia
Answer: (c) Sankardev
14. Azan Pir, the first Muslim saint to compose devotional songs in Assamese, was also known by which name?
(a) Shahmilan
(b) Shah Kamal
(c) Shah Akbar
(d) Shah Sufi
Answer: (a) Shahmilan
15. In Garhgaon, the king’s audience hall was referred to by what name?
(a) Namghar
(b) Solong
(c) Bhawna
(d) Rangghar
Answer: (b) Solong
16. Around the royal enclosure at Garhgaon, what feature served as a defensive moat?
(a) Dry ditch
(b) Bamboo palisade
(c) Water-filled trench
(d) Stone wall
Answer: (c) Water-filled trench
17. Under the Ahom paik system, how many paiks formed a ‘got’?
(a) Two
(b) Three
(c) Four
(d) Five
Answer: (b) Three
18. Assamese was restored as a court language and medium of instruction in which year?
(a) 1853
(b) 1871
(c) 1884
(d) 1901
Answer: (b) 1871
19. The Treaty of Yandaboo, marking the end of the First Anglo-Burmese War, was signed on which date?
(a) January 15, 1824
(b) June 1, 1825
(c) February 24, 1826
(d) October 10, 1827
Answer: (c) February 24, 1826
20. Who led the first organised anti-British uprising in Assam around 1828?
(a) Tirat Singh
(b) Maniram Dewan
(c) Gomdhar Konwar
(d) Gadadhar Konwar
Answer: (c) Gomdhar Konwar
21. Which of the following was NOT a supporter of Gomdhar Konwar’s 1828 uprising?
(a) Dhananjoy Borgohain
(b) Harakanta Borgohain
(c) Jeuram Dihingia Barua
(d) Maniram Dewan
Answer: (d) Maniram Dewan
22. The large agrarian protest in Darrang in 1894 is commonly known by what name?
(a) Phulaguri Uprising
(b) Patharughat Riot
(c) Lachima Protest
(d) Rangti Rebellion
Answer: (b) Patharughat Riot
23. The Inner Line Regulation Act required British subjects in the plains to obtain what before entering the hill areas?
(a) Land grant
(b) Trade licence
(c) Written pass
(d) Tax clearance
Answer: (c) Written pass
24. Berry White Medical School, later the Assam Medical College, was founded in which town in 1900?
(a) Guwahati
(b) Tezpur
(c) Dibrugarh
(d) Silchar
Answer: (c) Dibrugarh
25. Who served as the first Governor of Assam after India’s independence?
(a) Gopinath Bordoloi
(b) Bishnuram Medhi
(c) Sir Akbar Hydari
(d) Dr Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
Answer: (c) Sir Akbar Hydari
26. Which leader formed the first Congress ministry in Assam post-1947?
(a) Bishnuram Medhi
(b) Gopinath Bordoloi
(c) Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
(d) Tarunram Phukan
Answer: (b) Gopinath Bordoloi
27. Following the 1947 referendum, which of these areas remained within India rather than merging with East Pakistan?
(a) Sylhet town
(b) Patharkandi
(c) Habiganj
(d) Mymensingh
Answer: (b) Patharkandi
28. Which of the following statements is NOT true about zamindars under Ahom rule?
(a) They could bequeath their land
(b) Their office was hereditary
(c) They were exempt from all state taxes
(d) They could mortgage their estates
Answer: (c) They were exempt from all state taxes
29. According to the Jogini-Tantra, which was NOT one of the four main divisions of Kamrupa?
(a) Ratnapith
(b) Kampith
(c) Pragjyotishpith
(d) Swarnapith
Answer: (c) Pragjyotishpith
30. Which statement is NOT true about the Buranjis?
(a) They were composed by Ahom chroniclers
(b) They always recorded dates with complete accuracy
(c) They include court correspondence
(d) They sometimes omit authors’ names
Answer: (b) They always recorded dates with complete accuracy
Additional Questions and Answers
1. What ancient name of Assam is found in the Ramayana?
Answer: The ancient name of Assam found in the Ramayana is Pragjyotisha.
2. Which river traverses Assam from east to west for about 805 km?
Answer: The river Brahmaputra traverses Assam from the East to the West for a distance of about 805 Kilometers.
3. Name the two major valleys of Assam.
Answer: The two major valleys of Assam are the Brahmaputra and the Barak.
4. List the four broad racial groups of early inhabitants of Assam.
Answer: The early inhabitants of Assam are broadly grouped by scholars as:
(i) Austro-Asiatic
(ii) Negritos
(iii) Dravidians
(iv) Mongolians and Aryans
5. At which North Cachar Hills site were Neolithic tools found?
Answer: Neolithic tools were found at Daojali Hading in the North Cachar hills.
6. In which region of Assam have Palaeolithic stone tools been discovered?
Answer: Some stone tools of Palaeolithic culture have been found in the Garo hills.
7. Which inscription of Samudragupta first mentions the name Kamrupa?
Answer: The Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta is the earliest known historic source to mention the name Kamrupa.
8. Name the four pithas of ancient Kamrupa as per Yogini Tantra.
Answer: As per the Jogini-Tantra, the four main divisions, or pithas, of the kingdom of Kamrupa are Ratnapith, Kampith, Swarnapith, and Saumarpith.
9. Besides paddy, name three other crops grown in ancient Assam.
Answer: Besides paddy, other crops grown in ancient Assam included jute, jack-fruits, and sugar-cane.
10. What were the three varieties of rice cultivated in ancient Assam?
Answer: The three varieties of rice cultivated in ancient Assam were sali, bao, and ahu.
11. In the Ahom paik system, into what unit were individual paiks grouped?
Answer: Under the Ahom paik system, three paiks together formed a group known as a ‘got’.
12. How much land was each paik allotted for cultivation?
Answer: Each Paik is allowed 2 puras of tax-free good paddy land.
13. What was the staple food crop of ancient Assam?
Answer: The staple crop was paddy.
14. Who popularised Neo-Vaishnavism in Assam in the 15th–16th centuries?
Answer: Vaishnava reformation in Assam was popularised by Srimanta Sankardev (1449-1586).
15. What term describes the one-act plays composed by Sankardev?
Answer: The term used to describe the plays composed by Sankardev is “one-act plays”.
16. Which European traveller noted animal hospitals and large ears in Assam?
Answer: Ralph Fitch, an English man, noted that the people have “hospitals for sheep, goats, dogs, cats, birds and for all living creatures” and that “The people have ears which be marvelous great, of a span long”.
17. Who was the Ahom king reigning between 594 and 650 AD?
Answer: Bhaskar Varman of Kamrupa was one of the most important kings of the ancient Kamrupa and reigned between 594 – 650 A.D.
18. What name did the Ahoms give to their court chronicles?
Answer: The Ahoms gave the name Buranji to their chronicles, and the word Buranji meant “store-house of knowledge” for those who are unknowledgeable.
19. Which 1826 treaty ended the First Anglo-Burmese War affecting Assam?
Answer: The Treaty of Yandaboo, signed on 24th February, 1826, ended the war.
20. Who became the first British Commissioner of Assam in 1826?
Answer: The first commissioner was David Scott (1826-1831).
21. Which regulation barred British subjects from hill areas without a pass?
Answer: The Inner Line regulation Act of 1873 prohibited the British subjects (of Assam plains) from going beyond a certain line drawn in the hill areas without a pass or eslicence issued by the Deputy Commissioner.
22. In what year was Cotton College in Guwahati founded?
Answer: Cotton College was established in 1901.
23. Who led the 1857 uprising attempt in Assam?
Answer: Maniram Dewan was said to be the brain behind the attempt of an uprising in Assam during the Great Revolt of 1857.
24. At which Darrang site did ryots protest in 1894?
Answer: During the agrarian uprisings between 1861-1894, the ryots got violent at places like Patharughat in Darrang.
25. Which movement did Gandhi launch in 1921?
Answer: In 1921, Mahatma Gandhi visited Assam and launched the Non-cooperation and Khilafat movement by setting fire to foreign goods.
26. By breaking which law did Gandhi start the 1930 Civil Disobedience?
Answer: In 1930, Gandhiji launched the civil disobedience movement by breaking the salt law at Dandi.
27. Which referendum decided Sylhet’s merger in 1947?
Answer: A referendum in Sylhet decided its merger with the proposed East Pakistan.
28. Who was Assam’s first post-independence Chief Minister?
Answer: After Independence, the Assam Congress formed a government with Gopinath Bordoloi as chief minister.
29. Which Muslim saint composed Assamese Zikir songs?
Answer: Azan Pir was the first Muslim Saint to compose Zikir songs in the Assamese language.
30. How did Neolithic settlers in Assam differ in lifestyle from their Palaeolithic predecessors?
Answer: The Neolithic people of Assam, who preferred to live in hills or high grounds, were used to shifting cultivation and probably had not yet learned cultivation in the wet land of the plains. Like their Palaeolithic forerunners, they still seemed to have semi-nomadic habits. However, a key difference was the introduction of shifting cultivation. Additionally, the Microlithic people, who were hunters and food gatherers, used handmade pottery and stone tools such as blades, scrapers, points, and arrowheads.
31. Describe the economic condition of ancient Kamrupa and its external trade relations.
Answer: Information on the economic condition of ancient Assam is scanty and is mainly based on literary and epigraphic evidence. The Kingdom of Kamrupa had extensive cultivation of crops, with a good irrigation system testified by Hieun Tsang during the period of Bhaskar Varman. While hill people preferred Jhum cultivation, crops in plain areas grew abundantly. Besides paddy, products like jute, jack-fruits, amalaka, rudraksa, sugar-cane, and various fruits and vegetables were available.
Pat, Muga, and Endi cloths of Assam were much in demand outside the country. Gold was collected from the waters of the river Suvansiri, and the land was famous for good quality timber and other forest products. The medium of exchange was initially barter, but later, cowries and coins were used. For external trade, both land and water roads were used. Trade flourished with Bhutan, Tibet, Nepal, China, Sri Lanka, and South East Asia. King Bhaskar Varman used Tamralipti, a port in Bengal, for trade purposes, and trade relations were also maintained with Magadha, Gujarat, and Kashmir.
32. Explain the administrative divisions of the Kamrupa kingdom.
Answer: The kingdom of Kamrupa was divided into several administrative units. The largest division was the Bhukti, which was usually placed under princes as governors. These Bhuktis were further subdivided into Mandala, Vishaya, Pura, and agrahara. For local administration, there were Panchayats, and each village also had a village headman.
33. Outline the paik system under the Ahoms and its role in land revenue and military service.
Answer: Under the Ahom period, the male population between the ages of 15 to 50, excluding nobles, priests, and persons of high caste and their slaves, were liable to render service to the state. These individuals were known as Paiks. Three paiks formed a group called a ‘got’ and offered service one at a time in rotation. During a paik’s absence for state service, his land was cultivated by the other members of his ‘got’.
Each Paik was allowed 2 puras of tax-free good paddy land. When personal service was not required, he was paid two rupees instead. A paik was also a peasant in times of peace and a soldier in times of war, fulfilling both economic and military roles for the state.
34. Evaluate the significance of Buranjis as sources for reconstructing Assam’s history.
Answer: The introduction of Buranji writing is a unique contribution of the Ahoms, and their works are regarded as both valuable and trustworthy for reconstructing Assam’s history. The word Buranji itself means a “store-house of knowledge.” Their significance lies in providing a systematic and complete study of important events with accurate information. The incidents, dates, and chronology in the Buranjis are often confirmed by other sources like rock inscriptions, copper plates, coins, and Persian chronicles.
Buranjis supply evidence not only of kings and dynasties but also of culture and civilisation. They contain intimate talks of ministers, secrets of the royal house and courts, diplomatic correspondences, and details on court etiquettes. However, they have limitations; the dates are not always dependable, and since the authors are often not mentioned, it is difficult to judge their impartiality.
35. Analyse the impact of British land-revenue policies on Assam’s rural society.
Answer: The new land revenue system of the British government had a significant negative impact on Assam’s rural society. The common people, who were accustomed to the paik and Khel system, felt uncomfortable with the new policies. They were now required to pay tax in cash, which was a difficult adjustment as they were not used to cash dealings. The British colonialists also levied taxes on all formerly tax-free (Nishkar) lands and stopped grants to temples and devalayas.
Masses of people who were not used to a market economy found it difficult to cope with the new system. The cottage industries of the countryside were badly affected when markets were flooded with cheaper foreign goods. This led to widespread poverty and indebtedness in rural areas. The situation was worsened by the arrival of Mahajans and money lenders, who reached every corner of Assam and added more miseries to the people.
36. Examine the causes, events and outcomes of the Patharughat agrarian uprising of 1894.
Answer: The primary cause of the agrarian uprisings in Assam between 1861 and 1894, including the one at Patharughat, was the exorbitant hike in land revenue and the introduction of some professional taxes, which resulted in mounting discontent among the agrarian masses. The immediate trigger was in 1893 when Sir William Ward, the Chief Commissioner of Assam, enhanced taxes by 70 to 80 percent.
When memorials, prayers, and petitions from the aggrieved ryots of Kamrup and Darrang bore no fruit, they took the law into their own hands. The ryots became violent at places like Patharughat in Darrang. The government, in response, suppressed these uprisings with an iron hand.
However, the uprisings did not go in vain. The government’s barbarous actions created a stir throughout India. The issue was raised by Dr. Rasbehari Ghosh on the floor of the Imperial Legislative Assembly, and the government failed to provide an appropriate answer. This caused mass embarrassment for the government, especially when leading newspapers like the Indian Nation and Amrit Bazar Patrika opined that the grievances of the agrarian people were “real and not sentimental.”
37. Describe the layout and key features of Garhgaon as the Ahom capital.
Answer: Garhgaon was made the capital of Assam by king Suklengmung. The city appeared to be circular, wide, and an aggregation of villages. It had four gates of stone set in mud. From each gate to the Raja’s palace, a distance of three Kos, an extremely strong, high, and wide embankment (al) was constructed for the passage of men.
Around the city, in place of a wall, there was an encompassing bamboo plantation running continuously for two Kos or more in width. Round the Raja’s house, an embankment was made with strong bamboos planted close together to serve as a wall, and around this was a moat deeper than a man’s height and always full of water. The enclosure was one Kos and fourteen chains in circumference.
Within the city, habitations were not regularly laid out. The houses of the inhabitants were built in a scattered fashion within their orchards, and plough land was situated in front of the houses. Near the Raja’s palace, on both banks of the Dikhu river, the houses were numerous, and there was a narrow bazar road where the only traders were betel-leaf sellers. It was not the practice to buy and sell food articles in the market, as inhabitants stored a year’s supply of all kinds of food in their houses.
Owing to the excess of damp, houses were not built on the surface of the ground but on platforms resting on wooden pillars. The Raja’s audience hall, called Solong, was 120 cubits long and 30 cubits broad, standing on 66 huge, smoothed pillars. Outside the palace enclosure, a perfectly new and pure mansion was built for the Raja, and nobles built very nice and strong houses near the royal palace. At one end of the royal palace, a throne would be placed between four pillars, with nine canopies of different stuffs fastened to rings above, for when the Raja sat on the throne.
38. Discuss the contributions of Srimanta Sankardev to Assamese religion, literature and the arts.
Answer: Srimanta Sankardev (1449-1586) popularised the Vaishnava reformation in Assam, which resulted in the emergence of Neo-Vaishnavism. When Vaishnavism had lost its true meaning and spirit due to certain rituals, reformers like Sankardev endeavoured to reform it.
In religion, his Vaishnavism was based on the Gita and Bhagavat, and he believed in the worship of Vishnu only as the supreme God. His faith was called Bhagavati, as it was based on the philosophy of the Bhagavat. Sankardev preached this Neo-Vaishnava Faith first in the Ahom Kingdom and later in the Koch Kingdom, where he received a warm and healthy welcome from king Naranarayan.
In literature and the arts, Sankardev wrote metrical versions of the Bhagavat. He also composed Barageet and Kirtan, and wrote many one-act plays.
39. Assess Assam’s role and participation in Gandhi’s Civil Disobedience Movement.
Answer: The Civil Disobedience Movement, launched by Gandhiji in 1930, was widely participated in throughout Assam. The movement gained momentum through activities such as the boycott of foreign goods, picketing in front of foreign liquor shops, hartals, and complete strikes.
People from all walks of life, including women and students, violated the prohibitory orders of the government. The government tried to suppress student participation by issuing the Cunningham circular on May 19th, 1930, which required parents and students to give an undertaking of non-participation in political activities. However, this circular added fuel to the fire, and the movement intensified. In response, national schools were founded at Guwahati, Tezpur, Sibsagar, Dibrugarh, and Silchar.
Despite the government putting heavy hands on the participants, non-cooperation in offices, law courts, and educational institutions continued. Hundreds of women voluntarily supported the movement. Women leaders like Chandra Prava Saikiani at Guwahati, Giribala Gupta at Karimganj, and Goneswari Debi and Mukteswari Devi at Nagaon were arrested and imprisoned for their participation.
40. Outline the major administrative changes in Assam under British colonial rule.
Answer: The major administrative changes in Assam under British colonial rule were as follows:
(i) During the early period, Assam was administered under the government of Bengal, assisted by a commissioner stationed at Guwahati. In 1853, a Deputy Commissioner was appointed to assist the commissioner, and six districts were created soon after.
(ii) In 1874, the province of Assam was formed, to which Sylhet was also incorporated. All the hill tracts annexed up to that time were also merged with Assam.
(iii) The Inner Line Regulation Act of 1873 was introduced, which prohibited British subjects from the plains of Assam from going beyond a certain line drawn in the hill areas without a pass or license issued by the Deputy Commissioner.
(iv) The British introduced a new land revenue system, requiring people to pay tax in cash, which was a departure from the previous Paik system. The colonialists levied taxes on all former tax-free (Nishkar) land and stopped grants to temples and devalayas.
(v) Municipal and Local boards came into existence. This was followed by the construction of roads, communication by land and water, and the establishment of post offices, telegraph, and telephone services.
41. Discuss the factors leading to communal tensions in Sylhet during the 1947 referendum.
Answer: The factors leading to communal tensions in Sylhet during the 1947 referendum began with the Muslim League’s demand for the merger of Sylhet with the proposed East Pakistan. Governor General Lord Mountbatten approved a referendum in Sylhet to decide the matter.
This decision led to a loud protest and the raising of communal slogans both in favour of and against the proposal. Even the Jamayat-ul Ulema opposed the referendum. As a result of these developments, tension was mounting and resulted in communal riots in sensitive places of Sylhet.
Following the referendum, many Muslims residing on the border area fled to East Pakistan, and many Hindus from East Pakistan penetrated into Assam in search of a safe shelter. The vested interests of the British also led to the emergence of communalism in Assam during the pre-Independence days.
42. Examine the patterns of urbanisation and public-works planning in colonial Assam towns.
Answer: In the early colonial period, the British found towns in Assam to be “unhyzenic and filthy.” Urbanisation was slow and had little impact on towns like Jorhat, Sibsagar, Golaghat, and others until the second half of the 19th century. The process began with the establishment of a station at Cherrapunji in 1829 and the identification of Shillong as “suitable for residence of the Europeans” by 1860.
Gradually, a growth of urbanisation, planning, and construction of buildings to ‘modernise’ Assam was noticed. Public-works planning involved several key aspects:
Municipal Governance: Municipal and Local boards were established. For instance, the Municipal Act of 1850 was extended to Guwahati, and a grant-in-aid was sanctioned for making, repairing, and cleaning drains, and lighting public streets, though the amount was inadequate.
Infrastructure Development: There was construction of roads, communication by land and water, and the establishment of post offices, telegraph, and telephone services.
Public Buildings: Prominent public buildings and improved residential houses were witnessed. The Chief Commissioner’s residence, post office, and printing press were completed in Shillong by 1875. Court houses in Silchar, Sylhet, and Shillong had inflammable roofs, while those in Goalpara, Guwahati, and Tezpur remained thatched until 1874-75. Circuit houses were also established in major towns.
Amenities: In the second half of the 19th century, towns began to have hospitals, museums, and facilities for games and sports. The allocation of adequate funds and the availability of masons enabled masonry and brick works for public buildings in Guwahati.
Demographic Growth: A peep into demographic changes shows population growth in towns like Dibrugarh and Shillong.
43. Analyse how medieval travellers’ accounts shaped external perceptions of Assam.
Answer: The accounts of medieval travellers like Ralph Fitch and Shihabuddin Talish shaped complex and somewhat contradictory external perceptions of Assam.
Ralph Fitch’s account of the Koch kingdom in the sixteenth century portrayed a land that was great, with a “Gentile (Hindu)” king. It created a perception of a prosperous region with much silk, musk, and cotton cloth. Most notably, it depicted a people with a great tenderness for animal life, who were “all gentiles and they will kill nothing” and even maintained “hospitals for sheep, goats, dogs, cats, birds and for all living creatures.” This shaped an image of a peaceful and remarkably compassionate society.
In contrast, Shihabuddin Talish’s seventeenth-century account of the Ahom kingdom shaped a perception of Assam as a “wide and inaccessible” country closed to outsiders, with a harsh climate unsuitable for foreigners. He depicted the king as an “insane fellow” who was conceited, proud, and “addicted to shedding blood.” The people were portrayed as belonging to no particular faith, having no caste restrictions, and being “unrivalled in cruelty, deception and rudeness.” Their diet, which included every kind of meat except human flesh, and the practice of burying dead kings with wives, servants, and valuable ornaments, would have contributed to a perception of them as exotic or barbaric. However, Talish also noted their military prowess, describing their infantry as “invincible,” though they were afraid of horses.
Together, these accounts likely created a dual perception of the region: one part seen as a peaceful, wealthy, and compassionate Hindu kingdom, and another as an inaccessible, militarily strong but culturally alien land ruled by a cruel tyrant.
44. Describe the rise of Sufi traditions in Assam and their influence on communal harmony.
Answer: Sufism became popular in Assam, much like the Bhakti Movement. Its philosophy was based on Islam but was also influenced by the Indian environment, including within itself some Indian practices, ideas, and philosophy. Sufis believed that none can approach God without the assistance of a pir, and many pirs came to Assam at different periods. They used music, song, and dance with ecstasy to revere and remember God.
The rise of these traditions had a significant influence on communal harmony. Because Sufism was influenced by the local environment, saints of the Bhakta cult among the Hindus and Sufi saints and scholars could mix freely with each other and serve the society. The Dargahs of Sufi pirs attract people of all castes, creeds, and communities to this day. For example, the Dargah of Azan Pir at Saraguri chapori and the Dargah of the five Pirs at Dhubri are holy places that attract people from all walks of life. Azan Pir, the first Muslim saint to compose Zikir songs in the Assamese language, is a testament to this cultural integration.
A rare integration and communal harmony exist at Hajo, where the Dargah and the Hayagriba Madav Temple stand at the same site without any discomfort from either side, serving as a powerful symbol of the influence of these traditions.
