Bricks, Beads and Bones: AHSEC Class 12 History notes

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Get summaries, questions, answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF and guide of Class 12 (second year) History textbook, chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones (The Harappan Civilisation) which is part of the syllabus of students studying under AHSEC/ASSEB (Assam Board). These solutions, however, should only be treated as references and can be modified/changed. 

Summary

The Harappan civilisation, also known as the Indus Valley civilisation, flourished between 2600 and 1900 BCE. It was named after Harappa, the first site where its remains were found. This civilisation is recognised for its well-planned cities, trade networks, and advanced craftsmanship.

Harappan cities were carefully planned with wide streets, drainage systems, and large buildings. Mohenjodaro, one of the most significant sites, was divided into two sections: the Citadel and the Lower Town. The Citadel housed important structures such as the Great Bath, which may have been used for ritual bathing. The Lower Town contained houses built around courtyards, with wells and bathrooms. The city had an efficient drainage system, where every house was connected to street drains.

The people of this civilisation relied on agriculture and trade. They grew wheat, barley, lentils, and other crops. They also domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats. Some settlements were near rivers, which helped in irrigation. Others used reservoirs to store water. Trade played a major role in their economy, with goods being exchanged both within the region and with distant lands such as Mesopotamia and Oman. Materials like copper, lapis lazuli, and shells were brought from different places for making ornaments and tools.

Craft production was highly developed. Sites like Chanhudaro specialised in bead-making, shell-cutting, and metalwork. Beads were made from materials such as carnelian, jasper, and gold. Pottery was another important craft, often decorated with designs. The standardisation of weights and measures suggests that trade and commerce were well organised.

The Harappans used a script that remains undeciphered. It was written on seals, pottery, and copper tools. The seals, often bearing images of animals and human figures, were possibly used for trade or administrative purposes. Some of these images have been linked to later religious beliefs, such as a figure in a yogic posture being compared to Shiva.

Social differences existed, though they were not as pronounced as in some other ancient civilisations. People were generally buried in simple graves, with some having ornaments or pottery. This suggests that while some individuals had more wealth, the society was not highly stratified.

The decline of the civilisation started around 1800 BCE. Many settlements were abandoned, and the distinctive features of Harappan culture disappeared. Some scholars believe this was due to environmental changes such as shifting rivers or floods. Others suggest resource depletion or external invasions.

The Harappan civilisation was rediscovered in the early 20th century. Archaeologists like John Marshall and R.E.M. Wheeler played key roles in excavating sites. New discoveries continue to provide insights into this ancient society. Although the script remains a mystery, the evidence from their cities, crafts, and trade networks reveals a highly organised and sophisticated way of life.

Textbook solutions

Answer in 100-150 words

1. List the items of food available to people in Harappan cities. Identify the groups who would have provided these.

Answer: The Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products, including fish. Archaeologists have reconstructed dietary practices from finds of charred grains and seeds. Grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, and sesame. Millets were found at sites in Gujarat, while finds of rice were relatively rare. Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig, which were domesticated. Bones of wild species such as boar, deer, and gharial were also found. Bones of fish and fowl were present as well. Farmers and pastoralists would have provided grains and domesticated animals, while hunting communities may have supplied meat from wild species.

2. How do archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society? What are the differences that they notice?

Answer: Archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society by studying burials and artefacts. Burials indicate possible social distinctions, as some graves had pottery and ornaments while others did not. Some burial pits were lined with bricks, which may suggest a higher status. Another method is examining artefacts, which are classified as utilitarian or luxuries. Utilitarian objects, made from common materials like stone or clay, were found throughout settlements, while luxury items, such as faience pots, gold jewellery, and rare stones, were mostly found in large settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa. The concentration of such rare objects in major urban centres suggests social hierarchies and economic disparities among the Harappans.

3. Would you agree that the drainage system in Harappan cities indicates town planning? Give reasons for your answer.

Answer: Yes, the drainage system in Harappan cities indicates town planning. One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the carefully planned drainage system. Roads and streets were laid out along an approximate grid pattern, intersecting at right angles. It seems that streets with drains were laid out first and then houses were built along them. Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the wall to the street drains. The main channels were made of bricks set in mortar and were covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning. Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for cleaning. Drainage systems were found not only in large cities like Mohenjodaro but also in smaller settlements such as Lothal. This well-organised drainage system reflects a high level of urban planning and civic management.

4. List the materials used to make beads in the Harappan civilisation. Describe the process by which any one kind of bead was made.

Answer: The materials used to make beads in the Harappan civilisation included stones like carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, and steatite; metals like copper, bronze, and gold; as well as shell, faience, and terracotta or burnt clay. Some beads were made of two or more stones cemented together, while others had gold caps.

The process of making carnelian beads involved several steps. Nodules of carnelian were chipped into rough shapes and then finely flaked into their final form. To achieve the red color, the yellowish raw material was fired at various stages of production. The beads were then ground, polished, and drilled using specialized drills. Such drills have been found at sites like Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira.

5. Look at Fig. 1.30 and describe what you see. How is the body placed? What are the objects placed near it? Are there any artefacts on the body? Do these indicate the sex of the skeleton?

Answer: The skeleton in Fig. 1.30 is placed in an extended position, lying on its back inside a burial pit. Several pottery vessels are placed near the head of the skeleton, likely as burial offerings. The body has bangles on the arms. In Harappan burials, ornaments such as bangles, rings, and beads have been found on both male and female skeletons, so the presence of jewellery does not necessarily indicate the sex of the skeleton. However, large numbers of bangles are associated more commonly with female burials.

Short essay-type answers

6. Describe some of the distinctive features of Mohenjodaro.

Answer: Mohenjodaro was a planned urban centre and one of the most well-known sites of the Harappan civilisation. The settlement was divided into two sections: the Citadel and the Lower Town. The Citadel was smaller but built on mud brick platforms and was physically separated from the Lower Town by a wall. The Lower Town was also walled, with several buildings constructed on platforms that served as foundations.

One of the most distinctive features of Mohenjodaro was its carefully planned drainage system. Roads and streets were laid out in an approximate grid pattern, intersecting at right angles. Streets with drains were laid out first, and houses were built along them. Every house had at least one wall along a street to allow domestic wastewater to flow into the street drains. House drains emptied into sumps or cesspits where solid waste settled, while wastewater flowed out into the street drains.

The domestic architecture of Mohenjodaro included houses built around a courtyard with rooms on all sides. The courtyard was likely the centre for various activities such as cooking and weaving. The buildings reflected a concern for privacy, with no windows on ground-level walls and entrances that did not give a direct view of the interior. Every house had its own bathroom with brick flooring and drains connected to the street drains. Some houses had staircases, indicating a second storey or access to the roof. Wells were also common, and Mohenjodaro had about 700 of them.

The Citadel contained structures that were probably used for special public purposes, such as the Great Bath and a warehouse. The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank with two flights of steps leading into it, surrounded by a corridor on all four sides. The tank was made watertight using bricks set on edge with a mortar of gypsum. A large well supplied water to the tank, and a drain carried away the used water. Scholars suggest that the Great Bath may have been used for ritual bathing.

The warehouse was another massive structure in the Citadel, with its lower brick portions still remaining. The upper portions, likely made of wood, have decayed over time. These structures suggest organised urban planning and possibly some form of centralised administration in Mohenjodaro.

7. List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilisation and discuss how these might have been obtained.

Answer: The raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilisation included a variety of locally available and imported materials. Some of these were:

• Stones: Carnelian (from Bharuch, Gujarat), Jasper, Crystal, Quartz, and Steatite (from South Rajasthan and North Gujarat)
• Metals: Copper (from Khetri region, Rajasthan), Bronze, Gold (from South India), and Silver
• Shell: Obtained from coastal sites like Nageshwar and Balakot
• Faience: Made from ground sand or silica mixed with colour and gum, then fired
• Terracotta: Made from burnt clay
• Wood: Used for crafting tools and structures

These raw materials were procured through various strategies:

• The Harappans established settlements near sources of raw materials, such as Nageshwar and Balakot for shell, Shortughai in Afghanistan for lapis lazuli, and Lothal for carnelian and steatite.
• Expeditions were sent to regions like the Khetri area in Rajasthan for copper and South India for gold.
• Trade and exchange networks facilitated long-distance procurement. Harappan artefacts such as steatite micro-beads found in distant regions suggest interactions with local communities.
• Maritime trade was crucial for acquiring materials from Mesopotamia, Oman, and Bahrain. Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha (possibly the Harappan region) as a source of copper, carnelian, lapis lazuli, and other resources. Copper was likely imported from Oman, as indicated by chemical analyses showing traces of nickel in both Omani copper and Harappan artefacts.
• Overland trade using bullock carts and riverine routes along the Indus and its tributaries helped in transporting raw materials across different regions.

8. Discuss how archaeologists reconstruct the past.

Answer: Archaeologists reconstruct the past by using material evidence such as pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects, and structures. Since organic materials like cloth, leather, wood, and reeds decompose, archaeologists mainly rely on surviving materials like stone, burnt clay, and metal. They classify artefacts based on material and function, distinguishing between tools, ornaments, or ritual objects.

Archaeologists examine the context in which objects are found—whether in houses, drains, graves, or kilns—to determine their use. In cases where direct evidence is lacking, indirect methods are used. For instance, traces of cotton suggest the presence of textiles, and depictions in sculptures provide insights into clothing.

Stratigraphy plays a key role in dating artefacts by studying layers of occupation. The lowest layers are the oldest, and the highest are the most recent. By identifying layers and artefacts found within them, archaeologists establish cultural sequences.

The discovery of structures like the Great Bath, fire altars, and seals with animal motifs has led archaeologists to infer aspects of Harappan ritual practices. However, interpretations remain speculative, as the Harappan script remains undeciphered.

Archaeologists also look at social and economic structures through burials, artefact distribution, and craft production centers. The presence of luxury goods like faience pots, beads, and gold ornaments in large urban settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa suggests social differentiation.

Additionally, they investigate long-distance trade and resource procurement through the study of artefacts made from non-local materials. Evidence from sites like Nageshwar and Balakot suggests specialized craft production, while finds of Harappan goods in Mesopotamia indicate trade connections.

Early archaeologists, such as John Marshall, used horizontal excavation methods, but later, R.E.M. Wheeler introduced stratigraphic excavation to improve accuracy. Modern archaeologists employ scientific techniques such as surface exploration, chemical analysis, and microscopic examination of materials.

Despite these advancements, many aspects of ancient civilizations remain unknown, and interpretations continue to evolve with new discoveries.

9. Discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harappan society.

Answer: There are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in Harappan society. Take, for instance, the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery, seals, weights, and bricks. Notably, bricks, though obviously not produced in any single centre, were of a uniform ratio throughout the region, from Jammu to Gujarat. Settlements were strategically set up in specific locations for various reasons. Besides, labour was mobilised for making bricks and for the construction of massive walls and platforms.

If we look for a centre of power or for depictions of people in power, archaeological records provide no immediate answers. A large building found at Mohenjodaro was labelled as a palace by archaeologists, but no spectacular finds were associated with it. A stone statue was labelled and continues to be known as the “priest-king.” This is because archaeologists were familiar with Mesopotamian history and its “priest-kings” and have found parallels in the Indus region. However, the ritual practices of the Harappan civilisation are not well understood, nor are there any means of knowing whether those who performed them also held political power.

Some archaeologists believe that Harappan society had no rulers and that everybody enjoyed equal status. Others suggest there was no single ruler but several, with Mohenjodaro having a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth. Yet others argue that there was a single state, given the similarity in artefacts, the evidence for planned settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements near sources of raw material. As of now, the last theory seems the most plausible, as it is unlikely that entire communities could have collectively made and implemented such complex decisions.

Extras

Additional questions and answers

1. Define Harappan civilisation?

Answer: The Indus valley civilisation is also called the Harappan culture. It is named after Harappa, the first site where this unique culture was discovered. This civilisation is dated between c. 2600 and 1900 BCE. The Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan, in the same area. Archaeologists use the term “culture” for a group of objects, distinctive in style, that are usually found together within a specific geographical area and period of time. In the case of the Harappan culture, these distinctive objects include seals, beads, weights, stone blades and even baked bricks found from areas as far apart as Afghanistan, Jammu, Baluchistan (Pakistan) and Gujarat.

2. What is steatite?

Answer: Steatite is a stone used to make artefacts like the distinctive Harappan seals. It is a very soft stone, which was easily worked. Some beads were moulded out of a paste made with steatite powder.

3. What is an artefact?

Answer: Artefacts are objects left behind by people, such as their houses, pots, ornaments, tools, and seals; in other words, the material evidence from which archaeologists reconstruct the past. Archaeologists broadly classify artefacts as utilitarian (objects of daily use like querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers) and luxuries (objects that are rare or made from costly, non-local materials or with complicated technologies). Material evidence that allows archaeologists to reconstruct Harappan life could be pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects, etc. Surviving artefacts are often made of stone, burnt clay (or terracotta), or metal.

4. What does BCE stand for?

Answer: BCE stands for Before Common Era.

5. Define the term “Early Harappan”.

Answer: Early Harappan refers to archaeological cultures in the region prior to the Mature Harappan (dated between c. 2600 and 1900 BCE). These cultures existed in the same area as the later Harappan civilisation. The Early Harappan cultures were associated with distinctive pottery, evidence of agriculture and pastoralism, and some crafts. Settlements were generally small, and there were virtually no large buildings.

6. Name two Harappan sites located in Gujarat.

Answer: Two Harappan sites located in Gujarat are Dholavira and Lothal.

7. Name two grains found at Harappan sites?

Answer: Two grains found at Harappan sites include wheat and barley.

8. Who studies ancient plant remains?

Answer: Archaeo-botanists are specialists who study ancient plant remains, such as charred grains and seeds found at archaeological sites.

9. Name two animals domesticated by Harappans?

Answer: Two animals domesticated by Harappans were cattle and sheep.

10. What animal is depicted on Harappan seals?

Answer: Harappan seals often contain animal motifs; generally an animal motif conveyed a meaning to those who could not read. Examples depicted include the “unicorn” and the humped bull.

11. What is archaeo-zoology?

Answer: Archaeo-zoology involves the study of animal bones found at archaeological sites. Studies done by archaeo-zoologists or zoo-archaeologists indicate which animals were domesticated and also find bones of wild species.

12. What is a terracotta bull?

Answer: Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing. A terracotta bull is therefore a sculpture made from terracotta depicting a bull.

13. Name the site where a ploughed field was found.

Answer: Evidence of a ploughed field was found at Kalibangan (Rajasthan), associated with Early Harappan levels.

14. Where was evidence of an ancient canal found?

Answer: Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan.

15. Define saddle quern.

Answer: Saddle querns are grinding equipment, found in considerable numbers at Mohenjodaro, which seem to have been the only means in use for grinding cereals. As a rule, they were roughly made of hard, gritty, igneous rock or sandstone and mostly show signs of hard usage. As their bases are usually convex, they must have been set in the earth or in mud to prevent their rocking. Two main types have been found: those on which another smaller stone was pushed or rolled to and fro, probably used solely for grain; and others with which a second stone was used as a pounder, eventually making a large cavity in the nether stone, possibly used for pounding herbs and spices for making curries. [This answer needs diagram present on Page number 4]

16. What is a Citadel?

Answer: In Harappan settlements like Mohenjodaro, the settlement is typically divided into two sections: one smaller but higher and the other much larger but lower, designated as the Citadel and the Lower Town respectively. The Citadel owes its height to the fact that buildings were constructed on mud brick platforms. It was usually walled, meaning it was physically separated from the Lower Town. While most Harappan settlements have a small high western part (the Citadel) and a larger lower eastern section, at sites such as Dholavira and Lothal, the entire settlement was fortified, and sections within the town were also separated by walls. The Citadel within Lothal was not walled off, but was built at a height. Structures on the Citadel were probably used for special public purposes, such as the warehouse and the Great Bath found at Mohenjodaro.

17. What were Harappan bricks made from?

Answer: Harappan bricks, whether sun-dried or baked, were made from clay or mud and were of a standardised ratio. Both mud bricks and burnt bricks were used in construction.

18. Define a grid pattern in town planning.

Answer: In the town planning of Harappan cities like Mohenjodaro, roads and streets were laid out along an approximate “grid” pattern, intersecting at right angles.

19. What was distinctive about Harappan drainage systems?

Answer: One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the carefully planned drainage system. It is certainly the most complete ancient system as yet discovered. Every house was connected to the street drains. The main channels were made of bricks set in mortar and were covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning. House drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit into which solid matter settled while waste water flowed out into the street drains. Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for cleaning.

20. How many wells were estimated at Mohenjodaro?

Answer: Scholars have estimated that the total number of wells in Mohenjodaro was about 700.

21. What was the Great Bath?

Answer: The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides. There were two flights of steps on the north and south leading into the tank, which was made watertight by setting bricks on edge and using a mortar of gypsum. There were rooms on three sides, in one of which was a large well. Water from the tank flowed into a huge drain.

22. Define hoards.

Answer: Hoards are objects kept carefully by people, often inside containers such as pots. Such hoards can be of jewellery or metal objects saved for reuse by metalworkers. If for some reason the original owners do not retrieve them, they remain where they are left till some archaeologist finds them.

23. What materials were used for Harappan beads?

Answer: The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.

24. Define craft production.

Answer: Craft production in the Harappan civilisation involved activities including bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making, using a variety of materials procured from different sources.

25. Where is Chanhudaro located?

Answer: Chanhudaro is a settlement located near the Indus River in Sind.

26. Name one stone used for Harappan beads.

Answer: One stone used for Harappan beads was carnelian.

27. What was lapis lazuli?

Answer: Lapis lazuli was a blue stone that was apparently very highly valued by the Harappans.

28. What is faience?

Answer: Faience is a material made of ground sand or silica mixed with colour and a gum and then fired.

29. What is carnelian?

Answer: Carnelian is a stone, specifically of a beautiful red colour. The red colour of carnelian was obtained by firing the yellowish raw material and beads at various stages of production.

30. What is a sealing?

Answer: A sealing is an impression left on wet clay affixed to the knot of a rope tying a bag of goods. If the bag reached its destination with the sealing intact, it meant that it had not been tampered with. The sealing also conveyed the identity of the sender.

31. Define Harappan script.

Answer: The Harappan script, found on seals usually as a line of writing, remains undeciphered to date. It was evidently not alphabetical, as it has too many signs – somewhere between 375 and 400. It is apparent that the script was written from right to left.

32. What material were Harappan weights made of?

Answer: Harappan weights were usually made of a stone called chert.

33. What system of weights did Harappans use?

Answer: The Harappans used a system where the lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc., up to 12,800), while the higher denominations followed the decimal system.

34. Define stratigraphy.

Answer: Stratigraphy is the study of the layers found in archaeological mounds, which differ from one another in colour, texture, and the artefacts found in them. Generally, the lowest layers are the oldest and the highest are the most recent.

35. Who was Alexander Cunningham?

Answer: Alexander Cunningham was the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and is often called the father of Indian archaeology. He began archaeological excavations in the mid-nineteenth century, preferring to use written words (texts and inscriptions) as a guide. His main interest was in the archaeology of the Early Historic and later periods, using accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims to locate early settlements. Although Harappan artefacts reached Cunningham, he did not realise how old they were, as he thought Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley and Harappa did not fit into his framework. Thus, he missed the significance of Harappa.

36. Who discovered Mohenjodaro?

Answer: An archaeologist named Rakhal Das Banerji found seals at Mohenjodaro similar to those found at Harappa, leading to the conjecture that these sites were part of a single archaeological culture.

37. Explain the term Mature Harappan culture.

Answer: The Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan, in the same area.

38. What was the difference between Early Harappan and Mature Harappan cultures?

Answer: Early Harappan cultures were associated with distinctive pottery, evidence of agriculture and pastoralism, and some crafts. Their settlements were generally small, and there were virtually no large buildings. It appears that there was a break between the Early Harappan and the Mature Harappan civilisation, evident from large-scale burning at some sites, as well as the abandonment of certain settlements. The Mature Harappan culture developed in some of the areas occupied by the Early Harappan cultures and shared certain common elements including subsistence strategies. However, perhaps the most unique feature of the Mature Harappan civilisation was the development of planned urban centres. Mature Harappan culture was marked by distinctive artefacts like weights, seals, special beads, writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialisation, which disappeared by the Late Harappan phase. The Mature Harappan phase is dated between c. 2600 and 1900 BCE.

39. What does archaeological evidence suggest about Harappan diet?

Answer: Archaeological evidence suggests the Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products, including fish. Archaeologists have been able to reconstruct dietary practices from finds of charred grains and seeds. Grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame. Millets are found from sites in Gujarat. Finds of rice are relatively rare. Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig, indicating these animals were domesticated. Bones of wild species such as boar, deer and gharial are also found; it is not known whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or obtained meat from other hunting communities. Bones of fish and fowl are also found.

40. How were Harappan fields ploughed?

Answer: Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing. Moreover, terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali (Haryana). Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan), associated with Early Harappan levels. The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together.

41. How did Harappans irrigate their fields?

Answer: Irrigation was probably required for agriculture as most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sind; it is possible that ancient canals silted up long ago. It is also likely that water drawn from wells was used for irrigation. Besides, water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store water for agriculture.

42. Describe the function of the Citadel in Harappan towns?

Answer: Evidence of structures that were probably used for special public purposes is found on the Citadel. These include the warehouse – a massive structure of which the lower brick portions remain – and the Great Bath. The uniqueness of the Great Bath structure, as well as the context in which it was found (the Citadel, with several distinctive buildings), has led scholars to suggest that it was meant for some kind of a special ritual bath.

43. How was privacy maintained in Harappan houses?

Answer: There was an apparent concern for privacy in Harappan houses: there are no windows in the walls along the ground level. Besides, the main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.

44. Describe the layout of Mohenjodaro?

Answer: The settlement of Mohenjodaro is divided into two sections, one smaller but higher and the other much larger but lower. Archaeologists designate these as the Citadel and the Lower Town respectively. The Citadel owes its height to the fact that buildings were constructed on mud brick platforms and it was walled, physically separating it from the Lower Town. The Lower Town was also walled, and several buildings were built on platforms which served as foundations. Roads and streets in the Lower Town were laid out along an approximate “grid” pattern, intersecting at right angles. It seems that streets with drains were laid out first and then houses built along them.

45. What archaeological evidence suggests Mohenjodaro was a planned city?

Answer: Several signs indicate that Mohenjodaro was a planned city. The settlement was divided into two planned sections, the Citadel and the Lower Town, both often walled and built on platforms. The construction of these platforms would have required mobilising labour on a very large scale. Once the platforms were in place, all building activity within the city was restricted to a fixed area on the platforms, indicating the settlement was first planned and then implemented. Other signs of planning include bricks, which, whether sun-dried or baked, were of a standardised ratio across all Harappan settlements, where the length and breadth were four times and twice the height respectively. Furthermore, one of the most distinctive features was the carefully planned drainage system. Roads and streets were laid out along an approximate “grid” pattern, intersecting at right angles, with streets and drains being laid out first before houses were built along them.

46. Explain the term “social differences” in archaeology?

Answer: Archaeologists generally use certain strategies to find out whether there were social or economic differences amongst people living within a particular culture. These strategies include studying burials and studying artefacts. Differences in the way burial pits were made or the presence of items like pottery and ornaments in some graves might indicate social differences, reflecting a belief about the afterlife. Another strategy is to study artefacts, broadly classified as utilitarian (objects of daily use made of ordinary materials) and luxuries (rare objects made from costly, non-local materials or with complicated technologies). The distribution of such artefacts can indicate social differences; for example, rare objects made of valuable materials are generally concentrated in large settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa and are rarely found in smaller settlements.

47. How are luxurious artefacts identified?

Answer: Archaeologists broadly classify artefacts as utilitarian and luxuries. Another strategy to identify social differences is to study artefacts which are classified as luxuries. Archaeologists assume objects were luxuries if they are rare or made from costly, non-local materials or with complicated technologies. Thus, little pots of faience, a material made of ground sand or silica mixed with colour and a gum and then fired, were probably considered precious because they were difficult to make. Rare objects made of valuable materials are generally concentrated in large settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa and are rarely found in the smaller settlements.

48. Describe one method archaeologists use to identify craft production centres.

Answer: In order to identify centres of craft production, archaeologists usually look for indicators like raw material such as stone nodules, whole shells, copper ore; tools; unfinished objects; rejects and waste material. In fact, waste is one of the best indicators of craft work. For instance, if shell or stone is cut to make objects, then pieces of these materials will be discarded as waste at the place of production. Sometimes, larger waste pieces were used up to make smaller objects, but minuscule bits were usually left in the work area. These traces suggest where craft production took place.

49. How did Harappans transport goods?

Answer: Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that this was one important means of transporting goods and people across land routes. Riverine routes along the Indus and its tributaries, as well as coastal routes were also probably used.

50. Explain Harappan interaction with Oman.

Answer: Recent archaeological finds suggest that copper was also probably brought from Oman, on the south-eastern tip of the Arabian peninsula. Chemical analyses have shown that both the Omani copper and Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel, suggesting a common origin. There are other traces of contact as well. A distinctive type of vessel, a large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay, has been found at Omani sites. Such thick coatings prevent the percolation of liquids. It is possible that the Harappans exchanged the contents of these vessels for Omani copper. Mesopotamian texts datable to the third millennium BCE refer to copper coming from a region called Magan, perhaps a name for Oman. It is likely that communication with Oman was by sea.

51. What is the significance of Meluhha in Harappan context?

Answer: It is worth noting that Mesopotamian texts mention contact with regions named Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region. They mention the products from Meluhha: carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood. A Mesopotamian myth says of Meluhha: “May your bird be the haja-bird, may its call be heard in the royal palace.” Some archaeologists think the haja-bird was the peacock. Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers.

52. What was unique about the Harappan script?

Answer: Although the Harappan script remains undeciphered to date, it was evidently not alphabetical, as it has just too many signs – somewhere between 375 and 400. It is apparent that the script was written from right to left as some seals show a wider spacing on the right and cramping on the left, as if the engraver began working from the right and then ran out of space.

53. Why is Harappan literacy still debated?

Answer: It is debated whether literacy in the Harappan civilisation was widespread. Writing has been found on a variety of objects like seals, copper tools, rims of jars, copper and terracotta tablets, jewellery, bone rods, and even an ancient signboard. There may also have been writing on perishable materials. However, since the script is undeciphered, it is difficult to ascertain the extent of literacy among the population. Questions like “How widespread was literacy?” remain speculative.

54. Explain how Harappan seals were used in trade.

Answer: Seals and sealings were used to facilitate long-distance communication and trade. Imagine a bag of goods being sent from one place to another. Its mouth was tied with rope and on the knot was affixed some wet clay on which one or more seals were pressed, leaving an impression. If the bag reached with its sealing intact, it meant that it had not been tampered with. The sealing also conveyed the identity of the sender.

55. How were exchanges regulated in Harappan society?

Answer: Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone called chert and generally cubical, with no markings. The lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. up to 12,800), while the higher denominations followed the decimal system. The smaller weights were probably used for weighing jewellery and beads. Metal scale-pans have also been found.

56. Describe the debate about Harappan rulers.

Answer: There are differing opinions regarding rulers and authority in Harappan society as archaeological records provide no immediate answers. Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, and that everybody enjoyed equal status. Others feel there was no single ruler but several, that Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth. Yet others argue that there was a single state, given the similarity in artefacts, the evidence for planned settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements near sources of raw material. As of now, the theory of a single state seems the most plausible, as it is unlikely that entire communities could have collectively made and implemented such complex decisions. While a large building at Mohenjodaro was labelled a palace, no spectacular finds were associated with it, and a stone statue known as the “priest-king” is based on parallels with Mesopotamia, but the ritual practices and political power associated with such figures are not well understood.

57. Explain the agricultural technologies used by Harappans.

Answer: While the prevalence of agriculture among Harappans is indicated by finds of grain, reconstructing actual agricultural practices is more difficult. Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing. Moreover, terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali (Haryana). Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan), associated with Early Harappan levels, which had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together.

Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required for agriculture. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sind; it is possible that ancient canals silted up long ago. It is also likely that water drawn from wells was used for irrigation. Besides, water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store water for agriculture. Archaeologists have also tried to identify the tools used for harvesting, but it is unclear whether the Harappans used stone blades set in wooden handles or if they used metal tools.

58. Discuss Harappan dietary practices and their sources.

Answer: The Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products, including fish. Archaeologists have been able to reconstruct dietary practices from finds of charred grains and seeds, which are studied by archaeo-botanists, specialists in ancient plant remains. Grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame. Millets are found from sites in Gujarat, while finds of rice are relatively rare.

Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig. Studies done by archaeo-zoologists or zoo-archaeologists indicate that these animals were domesticated. Bones of wild species such as boar, deer and gharial are also found, though we do not know whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or obtained meat from other hunting communities. Bones of fish and fowl are also found. Additionally, saddle querns found in considerable numbers seem to have been the only means in use for grinding cereals, and possibly also for pounding herbs and spices for making curries.

59. Describe the domestic architecture of Mohenjodaro.

Answer: The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides examples of residential buildings. Many were centred on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides. The courtyard was probably the centre of activities such as cooking and weaving, particularly during hot and dry weather. There is also an apparent concern for privacy: there are no windows in the walls along the ground level, and the main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.

Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the wall to the street drains. Some houses have remains of staircases to reach a second storey or the roof. Many houses had wells, often located in a room that could be reached from the outside and perhaps used by passers-by. Scholars have estimated that the total number of wells in Mohenjodaro was about 700.

60. Explain the purpose and structure of the Great Bath.

Answer: The Great Bath, found on the Citadel at Mohenjodaro, was likely used for special public purposes, possibly some kind of special ritual bath. It was a large rectangular tank located in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides. There were two flights of steps, on the north and south, leading into the tank. The tank was made watertight by setting bricks on edge and using a mortar of gypsum.

There were rooms on three sides of the courtyard, and one of these rooms contained a large well. Water from the tank flowed out into a huge drain. Across a lane to the north of the Great Bath lay a smaller building which housed eight bathrooms, four on each side of a corridor. Each bathroom had drains that connected to a larger drain running along the corridor. The uniqueness of the structure and its location on the Citadel alongside other distinctive buildings has led scholars to suggest its ritual significance.

61. How do burials provide insights into Harappan social differences?

Answer: Archaeologists study burials to investigate potential social or economic differences among people in a culture. At Harappan sites, the dead were generally laid in pits. Sometimes, there were differences in the way the burial pit was constructed; for instance, some hollowed-out spaces were lined with bricks. However, it is uncertain whether these variations indicate social differences.

Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps suggesting a belief that these items could be used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in the burials of both men and women. For example, an excavation at the cemetery in Harappa in the mid-1980s uncovered an ornament near the skull of a male, consisting of three shell rings, a jasper bead, and hundreds of micro beads. In some instances, the dead were buried with copper mirrors. Despite these finds, on the whole, it appears that the Harappans did not believe in burying precious things with the dead. Overall, Harappan cemeteries show little social differentiation based on burial evidence.

62. Discuss the significance of beads in Harappan craft production.

Answer: Bead-making was a significant aspect of Harappan craft production. Chanhudaro, a tiny settlement compared to Mohenjodaro, was almost exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making. The variety of materials used to make beads was remarkable, including stones like carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, and steatite; metals like copper, bronze, and gold; and shell, faience, and terracotta or burnt clay. Some beads were made of two or more stones cemented together, and some were stone with gold caps. The shapes were numerous: disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, and segmented. Techniques differed according to the material; for example, steatite, a soft stone, was easily worked, and some beads were moulded from a paste made with steatite powder, allowing for diverse shapes. The red colour of carnelian was obtained by firing the yellowish raw material and beads at various stages of production. The process involved chipping nodules into rough shapes, finely flaking them into the final form, followed by grinding, polishing, and drilling. Specialised drills have been found at craft centres like Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira. Finished products, like beads, from Chanhudaro and Lothal were likely taken to large urban centres such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa. Beads were also considered among the distinctive objects of the Harappan culture, alongside seals, weights, stone blades, and baked bricks.

63. Identify the strategies used by Harappans for procuring raw materials.

Answer: The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various ways. While some materials like clay were locally available, many such as stone, timber, and metal had to be procured from outside the alluvial plain. Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest this was one important means of transporting goods and people across land routes. Riverine routes along the Indus and its tributaries, as well as coastal routes, were also probably used.
Specific strategies included:
(i) Establishing settlements in areas where materials were available: For instance, they established settlements like Nageshwar and Balakot in areas where shell was available. Other sites like Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan, were near the best source of lapis lazuli. Lothal was near sources of carnelian (from Bharuch in Gujarat), steatite (from south Rajasthan and north Gujarat), and metal (from Rajasthan).
(ii) Sending expeditions: Another strategy may have been to send expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and south India (for gold). These expeditions established communication with local communities. Occasional finds of Harappan artefacts like steatite micro beads in these areas indicate such contact. It is possible that the inhabitants of the Khetri region supplied copper to the Harappans.
(iii) Contact with distant lands: Recent archaeological finds suggest copper was also probably brought from Oman, on the south-eastern tip of the Arabian peninsula.

64. Discuss Harappan contacts with distant lands.

Answer: Harappans had contact with distant lands, evidenced by several findings. Recent archaeological finds suggest copper was probably brought from Oman. Chemical analyses show both Omani copper and Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel, suggesting a common origin. A distinctive large Harappan jar coated with thick black clay, found at Omani sites, might have been used to exchange Harappan goods for Omani copper. Mesopotamian texts from the third millennium BCE mention copper coming from a region called Magan, perhaps a name for Oman.

Mesopotamian texts also mention contact with regions named Dilmun (probably Bahrain), Magan, and Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region. Products mentioned from Meluhha include carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood. Mesopotamian sites contain traces of nickel, potentially from Oman via Harappan trade, and other finds like Harappan seals, weights, dice, and beads suggest long-distance contacts. A Mesopotamian myth refers to Meluhha’s haja-bird (possibly peacock) whose call might be heard in the royal palace. Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers. Depictions of ships and boats on seals further suggest communication with Oman, Bahrain, or Mesopotamia was likely by sea. A round “Persian Gulf” seal found in Bahrain sometimes carries Harappan motifs, and local “Dilmun” weights followed the Harappan standard. A cylinder seal typical of Mesopotamia found with a humped bull motif derived from the Indus region also indicates contact.

65. Describe Harappan weights and their importance.

Answer: Harappan exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights. These were usually made of a stone called chert and were generally cubical with no markings. The lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc., up to 12,800), while the higher denominations followed the decimal system. The smaller weights were probably used for weighing jewellery and beads. Metal scale-pans have also been found. These weights, along with seals, beads, stone blades and baked bricks, are considered distinctive objects of the Harappan culture. The standardised weight system’s disappearance, shifting to local weights, is noted as evidence for the end of the Harappan state or unifying element. Weights are also found as evidence of long-distance contacts, for instance, in Mesopotamia and Bahrain (where local Dilmun weights followed the Harappan standard).

66. Discuss archaeological strategies for identifying Harappan craft production centres.

Answer: In order to identify centres of craft production, archaeologists usually look for the following:

(i) Raw material such as stone nodules, whole shells, copper ore.
(ii) Tools used in the craft process.
(iii) Unfinished objects left incomplete.
(iv) Rejects and waste material.

Waste is considered one of the best indicators of craft work. For instance, if shell or stone is cut to make objects, then pieces of these materials will be discarded as waste at the place of production. Sometimes, larger waste pieces were used to make smaller objects, but minuscule bits were usually left in the work area. These traces suggest that apart from small, specialised centres like Chanhudaro (almost exclusively devoted to craft production), craft production was also undertaken in large cities such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa. Archaeologists also locate settlements near sources of raw materials, like Nageshwar and Balakot for shell, or Lothal near carnelian and steatite sources, suggesting these were centres for specific crafts.

67. Discuss the distinctive features of Mohenjodaro as an urban centre.

Answer: Perhaps the most unique feature of the Harappan civilisation was the development of urban centres, and Mohenjodaro is the most well-known site. The settlement is divided into two sections, one smaller but higher, designated as the Citadel, and the other much larger but lower, designated as the Lower Town. The Citadel owes its height to the fact that buildings were constructed on mud brick platforms. It was walled, physically separating it from the Lower Town. The Lower Town was also walled, and several buildings were built on platforms serving as foundations. This required mobilising labour on a very large scale. It seems the settlement was first planned and then implemented, as building activity was restricted to a fixed area on the platforms. Other signs of planning include bricks, whether sun-dried or baked, which were of a standardised ratio (length four times the height, breadth twice the height) used across all Harappan settlements.

One of the most distinctive features was the carefully planned drainage system. Roads and streets in the Lower Town were laid out along an approximate “grid” pattern, intersecting at right angles. It seems streets with drains were laid out first, then houses built along them. Every house needed at least one wall along a street for domestic waste water to flow into street drains. The main channels were made of bricks set in mortar, covered with loose bricks or limestone for cleaning. House drains first emptied into sumps or cesspits where solid matter settled, allowing waste water into street drains. Long drainage channels had sumps at intervals for cleaning.
Residential buildings in the Lower Town were often centred on a courtyard, likely the hub for activities like cooking and weaving. Privacy was a key concern, with no windows on ground-level walls and the main entrance not offering a direct view of the interior or courtyard. Each house had its own brick-paved bathroom with drains connected through the wall to street drains. Some houses had staircases suggesting second storeys or roofs. Many houses had wells, often accessible from the outside for passers-by; Mohenjodaro had an estimated 700 wells.

On the Citadel, evidence suggests structures were used for special public purposes. These include the warehouse, a massive structure with remaining lower brick portions, and the Great Bath. The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard, surrounded by a corridor, with steps leading down from the north and south. It was made watertight using bricks set on edge and gypsum mortar. Rooms were on three sides, one containing a large well. Water flowed from the tank into a huge drain. A smaller building nearby had eight bathrooms with drains connecting to a corridor drain. The uniqueness and context suggest the Great Bath was meant for a special ritual bath.

68. Explain the archaeological evidence for Harappan subsistence strategies.

Answer: The Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products, including fish. Archaeologists reconstruct dietary practices from finds of charred grains and seeds, studied by archaeo-botanists. Grains found include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, and sesame. Millets are found in Gujarat, while rice finds are relatively rare.
Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig. Studies by archaeo-zoologists indicate these animals were domesticated. Bones of wild species like boar, deer, and gharial are also found, though it’s unknown if Harappans hunted these themselves or got meat from hunting communities. Bones of fish and fowl are also found.

Agricultural practices are harder to reconstruct fully. Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate the bull was known, leading archaeologists to infer oxen were used for ploughing. Terracotta models of the plough have been found at Cholistan and Banawali (Haryana). Evidence of a ploughed field, associated with Early Harappan levels, was found at Kalibangan (Rajasthan), showing two sets of furrows at right angles, suggesting two different crops were grown together. Identifying harvesting tools is difficult; it’s unclear if they used stone blades set in wooden handles or metal tools.

Most Harappan sites are in semi-arid lands, likely requiring irrigation. Traces of canals have been found at Shortughai in Afghanistan, though not in Punjab or Sind, possibly due to silting. Water from wells was also likely used for irrigation. Additionally, water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have stored water for agriculture. Food processing involved grinding equipment like saddle querns made of hard, gritty rock or sandstone, used for cereals, herbs, and spices, as well as vessels of stone, metal, and terracotta for mixing, blending, and cooking.

69. Describe methods used by archaeologists to trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society.

Answer: Archaeologists use certain strategies to find out whether there were social or economic differences amongst people living within the Harappan culture. These include studying burials and studying artefacts.

At burials in Harappan sites, the dead were generally laid in pits. Sometimes, differences exist in the burial pit construction; for instance, some hollowed-out spaces were lined with bricks. Whether these variations indicate social differences is uncertain. Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, possibly indicating a belief in their use in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women, such as an ornament with shell rings, a jasper bead, and micro beads found near a male skull in Harappa. Some dead were buried with copper mirrors. However, overall, it appears Harappans did not believe in burying precious things with the dead.

Another strategy involves studying artefacts, broadly classified as utilitarian and luxuries. Utilitarian objects include those of daily use made easily from ordinary materials like stone or clay (e.g., querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers) found throughout settlements. Luxuries are assumed to be objects that are rare, made from costly, non-local materials, or involve complicated technologies. For example, little pots of faience (made from ground sand/silica mixed with colour and gum, then fired) were likely precious due to the difficulty in making them. The situation is complicated when daily use items, like spindle whorls, are found made of rare materials like faience. Studying the distribution of artefacts reveals that rare objects made of valuable materials are generally concentrated in large settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa and are rarely found in smaller ones. For instance, miniature faience pots are mostly found in Mohenjodaro and Harappa, none in Kalibangan. Gold was rare and probably precious; all gold jewellery found at Harappan sites was recovered from hoards.

70. Discuss the various types of artefacts found in Harappan civilisation and their classification.

Answer: A wide variety of artefacts representing the Harappan civilisation have been found. These material remains allow archaeologists to reconstruct Harappan life. Key artefacts include: seals (often steatite with animal motifs and script), beads (made of carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite, copper, bronze, gold, shell, faience, terracotta), weights (cubical, chert), stone blades, baked bricks (standardised ratio), houses, pots/pottery, ornaments (jewellery of gold, shell rings, jasper beads, micro beads), tools (copper tools, saddle querns, needles, flesh-rubbers), spindle whorls (clay, faience), copper mirrors, shell objects (bangles, ladles, inlay), terracotta figurines (mother goddesses, bulls, carts), metal vessels (copper, bronze), structures like the warehouse and Great Bath, stone statuary (“priest-king”), and conical stone objects (possibly lingas or gamesmen). Evidence of writing is found on seals, copper tools, jar rims, tablets, jewellery, bone rods, and even a signboard.

Recovering artefacts is just the beginning; archaeologists then classify their finds. One simple principle is classification by material, such as stone, clay, metal, bone, ivory, etc. A second, more complicated principle is classification by function. Archaeologists must decide if an artefact is a tool, an ornament, both, or something for ritual use. This understanding is often shaped by its resemblance to present-day objects (beads, querns, stone blades, pots are obvious examples). Archaeologists also investigate the context in which an artefact was found – whether in a house, drain, grave, or kiln – to help identify its function. Sometimes, indirect evidence is needed, like using depictions in sculpture to understand clothing since only traces of cotton exist. Another classification distinguishes between utilitarian objects (daily use, common materials, widely distributed) and luxuries (rare, costly/non-local materials, complex technology, concentrated in large settlements). Developing frames of reference, like comparing finds with those in Mesopotamia or understanding the cultural sequence, is crucial for interpretation.

71. Discuss the role of seals in Harappan civilisation and their use in long-distance trade.

Answer: Seals are possibly the most distinctive artefact of the Harappan civilisation. Made of a stone called steatite, they often contain animal motifs and signs from the undeciphered script. Seals and sealings played a role in facilitating long-distance communication. When a bag of goods was sent, its mouth was tied with rope, and wet clay was affixed to the knot. One or more seals were pressed onto the clay, leaving an impression (the sealing). If the bag arrived with its sealing intact, it signified that it had not been tampered with. The sealing also conveyed the identity of the sender. Harappan seals usually have a line of writing, probably containing the owner’s name and title. The motif, generally an animal, might have conveyed meaning to those unable to read.

Evidence suggests seals were integral to long-distance trade networks. Archaeological finds indicative of long-distance contacts include Harappan seals, weights, dice, and beads found at Mesopotamian sites. Conversely, a cylinder seal typical of Mesopotamia found at a Harappan site bears a humped bull motif seemingly derived from the Indus region. Mesopotamian texts from the third millennium BCE mention contact with regions named Dilmun (possibly Bahrain), Magan (possibly Oman), and Meluhha (possibly the Harappan region). These texts list products from Meluhha, such as carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and wood varieties. Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers, and depictions of ships and boats are found on Harappan seals, further supporting the idea of maritime trade facilitated, in part, by the use of seals. The round “Persian Gulf” seal found in Bahrain sometimes carries Harappan motifs, linking these regions.

72. Explain how archaeologists reconstruct craft production in Harappan settlements.

Answer: To identify centres of craft production, archaeologists usually look for the following: raw material such as stone nodules, whole shells, and copper ore; tools; unfinished objects; and rejects and waste material. In fact, waste is one of the best indicators of craft work. For instance, if shell or stone is cut to make objects, then pieces of these materials will be discarded as waste at the place of production. Sometimes, larger waste pieces were used up to make smaller objects, but minuscule bits were usually left in the work area. These traces suggest that apart from small, specialised centres, craft production was also undertaken in large cities such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

73. Discuss Harappan strategies for procuring materials for craft production.

Answer: The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various ways. While some materials like clay were locally available, many others such as stone, timber, and metal had to be procured from outside the alluvial plain. Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that this was one important means of transporting goods and people across land routes. Riverine routes along the Indus and its tributaries, as well as coastal routes, were also probably used.

For instance, they established settlements such as Nageshwar and Balakot in areas where shell was available. Other such sites were Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan, near the best source of lapis lazuli (a blue stone that was apparently very highly valued), and Lothal which was near sources of carnelian (from Bharuch in Gujarat), steatite (from south Rajasthan and north Gujarat), and metal (from Rajasthan).

Another strategy for procuring raw materials may have been to send expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and south India (for gold). These expeditions established communication with local communities. Occasional finds of Harappan artefacts such as steatite micro beads in these areas are indications of such contact. There is evidence in the Khetri area for what archaeologists call the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture, with its distinctive non-Harappan pottery and an unusual wealth of copper objects; it is possible that the inhabitants of this region supplied copper to the Harappans.

Recent archaeological finds also suggest that copper was probably brought from Oman, on the south-eastern tip of the Arabian peninsula. Chemical analyses have shown that both the Omani copper and Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel, suggesting a common origin. It is possible that the Harappans exchanged the contents of large Harappan jars, coated with a thick layer of black clay found at Omani sites, for Omani copper.

74. Examine the various explanations proposed for the decline of Harappan civilisation.

Answer: There is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE most of the Mature Harappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had been abandoned, alongside an expansion of population into new settlements in Gujarat, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. This transformation was marked by the disappearance of the distinctive artefacts of the civilisation – weights, seals, special beads, writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialisation. House construction techniques deteriorated and large public structures were no longer produced, indicating a shift to a rural way of life called “Late Harappan” or “successor cultures”.

Several explanations have been put forward for these changes. These range from climatic change, deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers, to overuse of the landscape. Some of these “causes” may hold for certain settlements, but they do not explain the collapse of the entire civilisation.

Another view suggests that a strong unifying element, perhaps the Harappan state, came to an end. This is evidenced by the disappearance of seals, the script, distinctive beads and pottery, the shift from a standardised weight system to the use of local weights, and the decline and abandonment of cities.

Additionally, R.E.M. Wheeler proposed a correlation between archaeological evidence and the Rigveda, suggesting an invasion. He pointed to mentions of Indra as “puramdara” (fort-destroyer) and the presence of fortifications at Harappa, along with skeletons found in Mohenjodaro, concluding that deliberate destruction by Aryans might have caused the decline. However, this “massacre” theory was questioned by George Dales in the 1960s, who argued that the skeletons did not belong to the same period and lacked evidence of warfare or a final defence.

75. Describe the development of archaeological methods used in Harappan excavations.

Answer: Archaeological methods in Harappan excavations evolved over time. Initially, in the mid-nineteenth century, Alexander Cunningham, the first Director-General of the ASI, preferred to use written texts and inscriptions as a guide. He focused on the Early Historic and later periods, using accounts of Chinese pilgrims to locate settlements and collecting artefacts he thought had cultural value. He did not realise the antiquity of Harappan artefacts like seals because Harappa did not fit his primary framework.

A major change came with John Marshall in the early twentieth century. As the first professional archaeologist to work in India, he brought experience from Greece and Crete and was keen on looking for patterns of everyday life, not just spectacular finds. However, Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, ignoring the stratigraphy (layers) of the site. This meant artefacts from different layers were grouped together, leading to a loss of valuable contextual information.

This issue was rectified by R.E.M. Wheeler, who became Director-General in 1944. Wheeler recognised the necessity of following the stratigraphy of the mound rather than digging mechanically along uniform horizontal lines. An ex-army brigadier, he brought military precision to archaeological practice.

Since the 1980s, there has been growing international interest and collaboration. Specialists from the subcontinent and abroad work jointly at sites like Harappa and Mohenjodaro. They employ modern scientific techniques, including surface exploration, to recover traces of materials like clay, stone, metal, plant, and animal remains, and minutely analyse all available evidence.

76. Discuss the problems archaeologists face in interpreting Harappan religious practices.

Answer: The problems of archaeological interpretation are perhaps most evident in attempts to reconstruct Harappan religious practices. One major challenge lies in identifying the religious significance of objects. Early archaeologists often assumed that unusual or unfamiliar objects had religious meaning. This included terracotta figurines of heavily jewelled women with elaborate head-dresses, regarded as mother goddesses, and rare stone statuary of men in a standardised seated posture, like the “priest-king”. Structures like the Great Bath and fire altars found at Kalibangan and Lothal were also assigned ritual significance.
Another significant problem arises from the practice of using later traditions to understand earlier ones, moving from the known (present) to the unknown (past). While this may be plausible for utilitarian items like stone querns and pots, it becomes highly speculative when applied to “religious” symbols. For example, seals depicting a figure seated cross-legged and surrounded by animals have been identified as “proto-Shiva”. However, this figure does not match the description of Rudra (a god later identified with Shiva) in the Rigveda, who is neither depicted as Pashupati (lord of animals) nor as a yogi in the text. This has led to alternative interpretations, such as the figure being a shaman. Similarly, conical stone objects classified as lingas (symbols of Shiva) might, as excavator Ernest Mackay noted, possibly have been used in board games.
Other interpretations, such as nature worship based on plant motifs on seals, or the depiction of mythical creatures like the “unicorn”, also remain tentative. Unanswered questions persist, such as whether the Great Bath was a ritual structure and what the terracotta female figurines were used for. Issues of gender in religious practices have also been little investigated.

Additional MCQs

1. Which material is the Harappan seal made from?

A. Granite
B. Steatite
C. Marble
D. Limestone

Answer: B. Steatite

2. What kind of script is found on Harappan seals?

A. Alphabetical
B. Pictographic
C. Undeciphered
D. Cuneiform

Answer: C. Undeciphered

3. What does “c.” stand for in dating?

A. circa
B. confirmed
C. century
D. continuous

Answer: A. circa

4. The Harappan civilisation is also known as which culture?

A. Vedic
B. Mesopotamian
C. Indus valley
D. Egyptian

Answer: C. Indus valley

5. What are the dates for the Mature Harappan culture?

A. 2600–1900 BCE
B. 3000–2500 BCE
C. 1900–1500 BCE
D. 1500–1000 BCE

Answer: A. 2600–1900 BCE

6. Which term describes a group of distinctive objects from a specific area and time?

A. Civilization
B. Culture
C. Tradition
D. Legacy

Answer: B. Culture

7. Which item is NOT a typical Harappan artefact?

A. Beads
B. Weights
C. Stone blades
D. Iron tools

Answer: D. Iron tools

8. Which region is not mentioned as yielding Harappan artefacts?

A. Afghanistan
B. Jammu
C. Baluchistan
D. Bengal

Answer: D. Bengal

9. What evidence indicates a break between Early and Mature Harappan phases?

A. Earthquake layers
B. Large-scale burning
C. Flood deposits
D. Volcanic ash

Answer: B. Large-scale burning

10. Which grain was commonly found at Harappan sites?

A. Rice
B. Wheat
C. Maize
D. Oats

Answer: B. Wheat

11. Which grain is relatively rare in Harappan sites?

A. Wheat
B. Barley
C. Rice
D. Lentil

Answer: C. Rice

12. Which domesticated animal is confirmed from Harappan bones?

A. Elephant
B. Goat
C. Lion
D. Horse

Answer: B. Goat

13. Who studies ancient plant remains at Harappan sites?

A. Historians
B. Archaeo-botanists
C. Geologists
D. Physicists

Answer: B. Archaeo-botanists

14. What evidence suggests the use of oxen for ploughing?

A. Stone statues
B. Terracotta plough
C. Metal tools
D. Wall paintings

Answer: B. Terracotta plough

15. At which site was a ploughed field with two furrow sets found?

A. Mohenjodaro
B. Harappa
C. Kalibangan
D. Lothal

Answer: C. Kalibangan

16. Where were irrigation canals discovered in the Harappan civilisation?

A. Punjab
B. Sind
C. Shortughai
D. Gujarat

Answer: C. Shortughai

17. Which artefact evidences food processing in Harappan society?

A. Querns
B. Mugs
C. Coins
D. Mirrors

Answer: A. Querns

18. What are the stones used in dual-stone querns for pounding herbs called?

A. Rolling stone
B. Curry stone
C. Millstone
D. Pounding stone

Answer: B. Curry stone

19. Mohenjodaro is divided into which two sections?

A. Upper and Lower
B. East and West
C. Citadel and Lower Town
D. North and South

Answer: C. Citadel and Lower Town

20. Who was the first Director-General of the ASI?

A. Wheeler
B. Cunningham
C. Marshall
D. Dales

Answer: B. Cunningham

21. How many person-days were estimated to move earth for Lower Town foundations?

A. Two million
B. Three million
C. Four million
D. Five million

Answer: C. Four million

22. What standard ratio were Harappan bricks made in?

A. 3:2:1
B. 4:2:1
C. 5:2:1
D. 6:3:1

Answer: B. 4:2:1

23. What pattern did Harappan streets follow?

A. Circular
B. Spiral
C. Grid
D. Random

Answer: C. Grid

24. What was a key feature of Harappan domestic architecture?

A. Courtyard centre
B. Glass windows
C. Open roofs
D. Towers

Answer: A. Courtyard centre

25. Approximately how many wells were in Mohenjodaro?

A. 500
B. 600
C. 700
D. 800

Answer: C. 700

26. The Great Bath was made watertight using which mortar?

A. Lime
B. Gypsum
C. Cement
D. Clay

Answer: B. Gypsum

27. In burials, which items were sometimes included for use in the afterlife?

A. Weapons
B. Pottery
C. Jewellery
D. Coins

Answer: C. Jewellery

28. Which material was considered precious and often found in hoards?

A. Copper
B. Bronze
C. Faience
D. Gold

Answer: D. Gold

29. Which settlement was devoted almost exclusively to craft production?

A. Mohenjodaro
B. Harappa
C. Chanhudaro
D. Kalibangan

Answer: C. Chanhudaro

30. Which stone used for beads is noted for its red colour after firing?

A. Quartz
B. Jasper
C. Carnelian
D. Crystal

Answer: C. Carnelian

31. Which specialised tool was found at Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira?

A. Drills
B. Axes
C. Hammers
D. Saws

Answer: A. Drills

32. From which region was lapis lazuli procured?

A. Gujarat
B. Afghanistan
C. Rajasthan
D. Punjab

Answer: B. Afghanistan

33. Which texts refer to copper coming from a region called Magan?

A. Rigveda
B. Mesopotamian texts
C. Bible
D. Gilgamesh

Answer: B. Mesopotamian texts

34. What system did lower denomination Harappan weights follow?

A. Decimal
B. Binary
C. Ternary
D. Quaternary

Answer: B. Binary

35. Approximately how many signs does the Harappan script contain?

A. 100
B. 200
C. 375–400
D. 500

Answer: C. 375–400

36. In which direction was the Harappan script written?

A. Left to right
B. Top to bottom
C. Right to left
D. Diagonally

Answer: C. Right to left

37. What is the term for the occupational debris that builds up at ancient sites?

A. Layers
B. Mounds
C. Terraces
D. Deposits

Answer: B. Mounds

38. Who announced the discovery of the Harappan civilisation in 1924?

A. Cunningham
B. Marshall
C. Wheeler
D. Dales

Answer: B. Marshall

39. Who later corrected excavation methods by emphasising stratigraphy?

A. Cunningham
B. Marshall
C. Wheeler
D. Rao

Answer: C. Wheeler

40. In Early Indian Archaeology, what is the Chalcolithic period dated to?

A. 2 million BP
B. 80,000 BP
C. 10,000 BP
D. 6,000 BP

Answer: D. 6,000 BP

41. In Timeline 2, which year marks the beginning of excavations at Mohenjodaro?

A. 1921
B. 1925
C. 1946
D. 1955

Answer: B. 1925

42. In Timeline 2, who began excavations at Lothal?

A. M.S. Vats
B. S.R. Rao
C. B.B. Lal
D. R.S. Bisht

Answer: B. S.R. Rao

43. What did John Marshall’s excavation method ignore?

A. Stratigraphy
B. Mapping
C. Preservation
D. Carbon dating

Answer: A. Stratigraphy

44. Which type of artefact is most likely to be preserved in Harappan sites?

A. Wood
B. Cloth
C. Stone
D. Leather

Answer: C. Stone

45. Which artefact is worshipped as a symbol of Shiva?

A. Quern
B. Seal
C. Linga
D. Bead

Answer: C. Linga