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Colonialism and Rural Society: NBSE Class 12 (Arts) History notes
Get summary, textual answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF to NBSE Class 12 (Arts) History (Themes in Indian History) chapter 9 “Colonialism and Rural Society: Evidence from Official Reports”. However, the educational materials should only be used for reference and students are encouraged to make necessary changes.
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Introduction
The British colonial rule in India had a profound impact on the economic landscape of the country, particularly in the realm of agriculture and land revenue. As the British East India Company sought to expand its territories, it heavily relied on land revenue and taxes imposed on Indian peasants to fund its ventures. These revenue policies had significant implications for the Indian society, as they determined wealth distribution, land ownership, and access to resources. Peasants, who were the primary contributors to land revenue, often found themselves facing financial hardships, which in turn influenced their actions and reactions to the imposed laws. The dynamics between the colonizers and the colonized, as well as the outcomes of the British revenue policies, can be better understood by examining historical documents such as revenue records, surveys, journals, and reports from government commissions. These sources provide valuable insights into the experiences of rural society under British rule, revealing the complexity and multifaceted consequences of colonial economic policies on India’s development.
Textual questions and answers
Very Short Answer Type Questions
1. What is the meaning of land settlement?
Answer: The process by which the government officials determine the amount of land revenue payable is called the land settlement. The land settlement consists in the determination of (a) the share of the produce or the rental to which the state is entitled, (b) the person or the persons who are liable to pay, and (c) the records of all private rights and interests in the land.
2. Give two instances of financial loss to the East India Company due to the permanent settlement.
Answer:
- The company had fixed exorbitant rates of land revenue, which were difficult for the landlords to collect from their tenants or ryots.
- The lands of many landlords were sold due to non-payment of the fixed amount of land revenue to the company.
3. Why did peasants raise loans?
Answer: To meet their urgent needs, such as payment of revenue.
4. How were the moneylenders the cause of poverty of peasants?
Answer: The moneylenders manipulated laws, forged documents and accounts, and charged exorbitant rates of interest, leading to the seizure of peasant’s property and deepening their poverty.
5. How did the Zamindars exploit the ryots with the introduction of Permanent Settlement in Bengal?
Answer: The landlords charged arbitrary rents from their ryots and could collect as much revenue from their tenants as they wished.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Describe the life of the peasants and craftsmen in the 18th century in India.
Answer: The majority of the people lived in the villages which were economically self-sufficient. The agricultural produce of the village was used to fulfil the needs of the people. The cultivators paid the land revenue to the state, and the government officials did not interfere in the affairs of the villages. Besides the farmers, every village had a carpenter, blacksmith, weaver, cobbler, washerman, and hairdresser. All these craftsmen fulfilled the needs of the villagers. However, British economic policies gave a severe blow to the village economy. The farmers had to pay a fixed amount of land revenue to the Company in cash. The farmers had to produce crops not only to fulfil their own needs but also to produce new types of crops to sell in the market. Now the farmer’s object was to earn money so that he might be able to pay the land revenue to the government at the fixed time. Sometimes he had to raise a loan to pay the land revenue. Consequently, the new tradition of commercialisation of agriculture came into existence(9).
2. Why was the Jotedar a powerful figure in many areas of Bengal?
Answer: In the end of the eighteenth century, when the Zamindars were facing a crisis, a group of rich peasants was busy consolidating its position in the villages. By the early nineteenth century, the Jotedars had become the owners of vast areas of land. Some had acquired as much as several thousand acres of land. They were moneylenders, controlled trade, and exercised immense power over the poor cultivators of the region. Most of their land was cultivated through sharecroppers (adhiyars or bargadars). They brought their own ploughs, worked in the fields, and gave over half the product to the Jotedars after the crop was reaped. In the villages, the Jotedars were more powerful than the Zamindars. The Zamindars often lived in the urban areas, but the Jotedars lived in the village and exercised direct control over a large section of the poor villagers. They resisted forcefully the efforts of the Zamindars to increase the Jama (revenue demand) of the village. They prevented Zamindar’s officials from performing their duties and mobilised ryots who were dependent on them. The Jotedars also deliberately delayed payment of revenue to the Zamindar. In case the estates of the Zamindars were auctioned for failure to make payments, the Jotedars were often the purchasers(9).
3. Examine the circumstances that led to the passing of ‘Limitation Laws’ by the British in 1859.
Answer: The ryots complained of moneylenders manipulating laws and forging documents and accounts. In 1859, the British Government enacted a Limitation Law that laid down that the loan bonds would be valid for only three years. It aimed to check the accumulation of interest over time. The moneylenders forced the ryots to sign a new bond every three years. When the new bond was signed, the unpaid balance, i.e., the original loan and the accumulated interest was entered as the principal. A new set of interest charged was calculated. In the petitions that the Deccan Riot Commission collected, the ryots wrote how the processes worked and what unjust methods were adopted by the moneylenders to short-charge the ryot. For example, they refused to give receipts when loans were repaid, entered fictitious figures in bonds, bought the peasant’s harvest at low prices, and ultimately took over the helpless peasant’s property. The bonds and deeds were considered as a part of the new oppressive system. The peasants came to associate their miseries with the new regime of bonds and deeds. The peasants were made to sign and put thumb impressions on the documents, not allowing them to know what they were actually signing. They had no idea of the terms which the moneylender inserted in the bonds(9).
4. Describe the main features of the permanent settlement of Bengal introduced by Cornwallis.
Answer: The main features of the permanent settlement of Bengal introduced by Cornwallis were:
- The Zamindars who collected the land revenue were made the owners of the land.
- The Zamindars had to pay a fixed amount of revenue to the Company. It could neither be increased nor decreased later.
- It was decided that the Government would have a claim to the 10/11 of the gross revenue, the balance being kept by the Zamindars. The Government assured the Zamindars that except for the land revenue, they would not have to pay any other tax or give any gift or nazrana to the Government.
- In case any Zamindar failed to pay the fixed amount of revenue, the Government had the right to confiscate some part of his land holding to recover the amount due.
- The farmers or the ryots were made the tenants of the Zamindars.
- The Zamindars were deprived of their administrative and judicial powers. The government assured the Zamindars that it would not interfere with their traditions.
5. How did Zamindars manage to retain their control over their Zamindaris?
Answer: The Zamindars devised ways of surviving the pressures on them and saving their estates from possible auction. By a series of manoeuvres, they made fictitious sales. For instance, the Raja of Burdawan first transferred some of his Zamindari to his mother since the East India Company had decreed that the property of women would not be taken over. The second method was the manipulation of auctions by the agents of the Zamindar. The Zamindars deliberately withheld the demand of the Company and allowed the payment of unpaid balances to accumulate. When the state officials auctioned a part of the estate, the Zamindar’s men bought the property, outbidding other purchasers, but subsequently refused to pay up the purchase money. The Company had to resell the estate. Once again, the Zamindar’s agents bought the estate, and once again they did not pay the purchase money, and once again there was an auction. This process was repeated endlessly, exhausting the state and the auction. Ultimately, the estate was sold back to the Zamindar at a low price. The Zamindar never paid the full revenue demand. The Company rarely recovered the unpaid balances that had accumulated. Fictitious transactions happened on a large scale. During 1793-1801, four big Zamindars of Bengal, including Raja of Burdawan, made benami purchases which amounted to 30 lakh rupees. Of total sales at the auctions, more than 15 per cent were fictitious.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. What changes came in the condition of agriculture in India in the 19th century?
Answer: The British rule in the 19th century brought significant changes to Indian agriculture. Economic exploitation became rampant as the British implemented policies to maximize revenue extraction. Traditional village economies, which were largely self-sufficient, were disrupted. Farmers had to pay fixed land revenue in cash, prompting the need to grow commercial crops like cotton, jute, sugarcane, and wheat for market sale. This led to the commercialisation of agriculture, driven by British industrial demands for raw materials.
The shift to commercial crops initially harmed farmers, who could not compete with mechanised agriculture abroad. They became heavily indebted to moneylenders, who exploited their financial vulnerability. British land revenue systems introduced intermediaries like Zamindars who further exploited peasants by extracting high rents and illegal taxes.
High land revenue demands, fragmentation of landholdings due to personal property laws, and rigid collection methods added to peasants’ woes. Natural calamities like droughts and famines exacerbated their struggles. Additional taxes on daily necessities and the monopoly over forest resources further impoverished them.
By the late 19th century, rural indebtedness soared. Dr. A. R. Desai noted the increasing indebtedness since 1880, reaching a geometric rate. The peasants’ plight led to various movements and the formation of peasant unions, highlighting the oppressive nature of British policies. Despite some efforts by the British government to pass protective laws and establish cooperative credit societies, the problem persisted until independence. Post-independence reforms significantly improved farmers’ conditions, addressing the deep-rooted issues of rural indebtedness and exploitation.
2. Examine the sources of livelihood of the Paharias (hillfolk) of Rajmahal hills. How did they respond to the coming of Santhals?
Answer: The Paharias of the Rajmahal hills lived by hunting, shifting cultivation, gathering forest products, charcoal production, and silk worm rearing. They cleared patches of forest to grow pulses and millets, then moved to new areas after a few years. They collected mahua flowers, cocoons, and resin for sale, relying on the forest for their sustenance. Their life was symbolised by the hoe, which they used for shifting cultivation.
The Paharias were fiercely protective of their land and way of life, resisting any outsider interference. They raided settled communities during scarcity and collected tribute from Zamindars for peace. The British saw the Paharias as savage and unruly, leading to a brutal policy of extermination in the 1780s. Augustus Cleveland later proposed a policy of pacification, offering allowances to Paharia chiefs to maintain order. Many chiefs refused, losing the confidence of their community.
The arrival of the Santhals in the late 18th century posed a new threat to the Paharias. The Santhals, symbolised by the plough, began clearing forests and cultivating the land. Encouraged by the British, who sought to increase revenue and establish settled agriculture, the Santhals displaced the Paharias from the lower hills. The Paharias retreated deeper into the hills, continuing their resistance.
The conflict between the Paharias and the Santhals, representing the battle between the hoe and the plough, marked a prolonged struggle for land and resources. The Santhals’ expansion into the Rajmahal hills ultimately forced the Paharias to adapt or retreat further into the mountains, significantly altering their traditional way of life.
3. What were the defects in the British Land Revenue Policy in India?
Answer: The British Land Revenue Policy in India had several critical defects. One major flaw was the introduction of intermediaries, such as Zamindars, who stood between the government and the cultivators. These intermediaries, loyal to the British, exploited the peasants by extracting high rents and illegal taxes. Land became a saleable commodity, leading to widespread impoverishment among peasants who often lost their land due to inability to pay taxes.
Despite some efforts to improve peasant conditions, the British government’s investments were skewed. They spent heavily on constructing railways to serve their interests but invested meagre amounts in irrigation works that could benefit agriculture. Laws passed to protect peasants’ interests were insufficient and often ineffective. Landlords and moneylenders continued to exploit the peasants unabated.
The government failed to provide adequate relief during natural calamities such as droughts, floods, or famines. Consequently, many farmers died from starvation during these periods. The primary aim of the British government was to extract as much land revenue as possible, benefiting the moneylenders and landlords while neglecting the peasants’ welfare.
The rigid methods of revenue collection added to the peasants’ miseries. They had to pay land revenue promptly, regardless of harvest quality. In times of low or failed harvests, their land was often put up for sale to recover arrears, leading to further loss of land. The additional burden of taxes on daily necessities impoverished farmers further.
Forests becoming state monopolies forced peasants to buy firewood, leading to a paucity of cow dung as manure, thereby decreasing agricultural productivity. The fragmentation of landholdings due to personal property laws made cultivation uneconomical. The overall policy shattered the rural economy, leaving peasants impoverished and indebted, with little hope of state assistance to improve their conditions.
4. What were the causes of Deccan Riots of 1875? How did the Government suppress them?
Answer: The Deccan Riots of 1875 were primarily caused by the extreme poverty and indebtedness of cultivators in Poona and Ahmednagar districts. Marwari moneylenders exploited the peasants, charging exorbitant interest rates and often seizing their lands. The agrarian distress was compounded by falling agricultural prices and high revenue demands from the government. The situation became untenable, leading to widespread discontent among the peasants.
The riots began in May 1875 at Supa village in Poona, where peasants looted and burned the properties of moneylenders, demanding their debt bonds and account books, which they then destroyed. The violence quickly spread to 33 villages, resulting in the arrest of 951 individuals and the conviction of over 500 by the courts. The primary objective of the rioters was to destroy the documents that symbolised their indebtedness, resorting to violence only when creditors refused to comply.
In response to the riots, the British government appointed a commission in 1875 to investigate the causes. The Deccan Riots Commission attributed the unrest to the severe indebtedness and poverty of the cultivators, exacerbated by the cotton boom during the American Civil War and its subsequent collapse. The commission’s report highlighted the exploitative practices of moneylenders and the rigid revenue collection methods that left peasants with no recourse but to rebel.
To suppress the riots, the government introduced the Ryotwari settlement in the Bombay Deccan, which aimed to individualise land ownership and streamline revenue collection. However, this system benefitted the government and moneylenders more than the peasants. High revenue demands and falling cotton prices left peasants unable to meet financial obligations, deepening their indebtedness.
Despite some measures to moderate revenue demands and establish cooperative credit societies, the fundamental issues of exploitation and high taxation persisted. The government’s suppression of the riots was more about maintaining order than addressing the underlying causes of peasant distress, leaving the agrarian community’s problems largely unresolved.
5. What were the causes of rural indebtedness in India? What measures were taken by the government to ameliorate the condition of the peasants?
Answer: Rural indebtedness in India was driven by several factors. High land revenue demands and rigid collection methods imposed by the British government forced many peasants to take loans from moneylenders. The fragmentation of landholdings due to inheritance laws made cultivation uneconomical, further impoverishing the peasants. Additional taxes on essential goods and the state’s monopoly over forest resources added to their financial burden.
Natural calamities like droughts, floods, and famines worsened the situation. During such crises, peasants were forced to borrow even more to survive and pay taxes. The moneylenders exploited this vulnerability, often seizing land and property when loans could not be repaid. The British revenue laws supported the moneylenders, allowing them to acquire land easily, which pushed peasants into deeper poverty.
The British government did take some measures to address rural indebtedness. Tenancy Acts were passed to protect peasants’ interests, and Cooperative Credit Societies were established to provide low-interest loans. The government also prohibited the sale of land by cultivators to non-agriculturists. However, these measures were often insufficient and poorly implemented.
The Indian National Congress and other nationalist movements played a crucial role in advocating for peasants’ rights. Peasant unions and committees were formed to fight against exploitation and demand better conditions. Significant movements emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, culminating in the formation of the All India Kisan Sabha in 1936, which became a powerful voice for the agrarian community.
Despite these efforts, the problem of rural indebtedness remained largely unresolved until independence. Post-independence, comprehensive land reforms and agricultural policies were implemented to improve peasants’ conditions. The establishment of institutional credit mechanisms, reduction of land revenue, and introduction of modern agricultural practices significantly alleviated the plight of farmers. These measures led to a substantial improvement in the economic conditions of the rural population, addressing the deep-rooted issues of indebtedness and exploitation.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Who was David Ricardo?
A. Diplomat B. Historian C. Economist D. None of the above
Answer: C. Economist
2. When was the Cotton Supply Association established in Britain?
A. 1857 B. 1859 C. 1860 D. 1862
Answer: B. 1859
3. How much cotton was imported from India to Britain?
A. 60% B. 70% C. 80% D. 90%
Answer: D. 90%
4. “The loan bonds signed between moneylenders and ryots would have validity for only three years.” This was mentioned in which law?
A. Deccan Riot Report 1857 B. Limitation Law 1859 C. Both (a) and (b) D. None of the above
Answer: B. Limitation Law 1859
5. When was Manchester Cotton Company formed?
A. 1850 B. 1855 C. 1859 D. 1860
Answer: D. 1860
Competency-Based Questions
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Arrange the following in chronological order and select the correct order from the following options:
I. Santhal Rebellion
II. Riots in Deccan Villages
III. Permanent Settlement in Bengal
IV. First Revenue Settlement in Bombay Deccan
(a) I, II, III, and IV
(b) I, II, IV, and III
(c) II, IV, I, and III
(d) IV, III, I, and II
Answer: (d) IV, III, I, and II
2. Identify the East India Company’s officer with the help of the following information:
(i) Was a physician of Lord Wellesley
(ii) He surveyed Bengal
(iii) He established a zoo in Bengal
(a) Colin Mackenzie
(b) John Marshall
(c) Marco Polo
(d) Francis Buchanan
Answer: (d) Francis Buchanan
3. Consider the following statements regarding the hillfolk/paharias during the 18th century and choose the correct statements:
A. They lived around Rajmahal hills.
B. They were hunters, food gatherers, and shifting cultivators.
C. They were simple people and never harmed the permanent settlers of plains.
D. They used to grow a variety of pulses and millets for their consumption.
Choose the correct option:
(a) A, B, C
(b) B
(c) A, B, D
(d) A, B, C, D
Answer: (c) A, B, D
4. Match the following:
(i) Deccan Riot – (A) 1855-56
(ii) Santhal Riot – (B) 1875
(iii) Regulating Act – (C) 1818
(iv) First permanent settlement in Bombay (Deccan) – (D) 1773
Options:
(a) (i) (C), (ii) (D), (iii) (A), (iv) (B)
(b) (i) (B), (ii) (A), (iii) (D), (iv) (C)
(c) (i) (A), (ii) (B), (iii) (C), (iv) (D)
(d) (i) (D), (ii) (C), (iii) (B), (iv) (A)
Answer: (b) (i) (B), (ii) (A), (iii) (D), (iv) (C)
5. Why did the British favour the Santhals more than the Paharias?
(a) Paharias were a nomadic group whereas the Santhals were a civilised settled population.
(b) Paharias refused to practice shifting agriculture which the Santhals agreed to do.
(c) Santhals agreed to collect mahua from the forests which the Paharias denied.
(d) Santhals were ready to clear forests and plough which the Paharias refused.
Answer: (d) Santhals were ready to clear forests and plough which the Paharias refused.
Case-based Questions
1 Read the following case carefully and answer the following questions
The Jotedars of Dinajpur
Buchanan described the ways in which the jotedars of Dinajpur in North Bengal resisted being disciplined by the zamindar and undermined his power: Landlords do not like this class of men, but it’s evident that they are absolutely necessary. Unless the landlords themselves would advance money for their necessitous tenantry… The jotedars who cultivate large portions of lands are very refractory and know that the zamindars have no power over them. They pay only a few rupees on account of their revenue and then fall in balance almost every installment; they hold more lands than they are entitled to by their pattas (deeds of contract). Should the zamindar’s officers, in consequence, summon them to cutcherry and detain them for one or two hours with a view to reprimand them, they immediately go and complain at the Fouzdarry Thanna (Police Station) for imprisonment and at the munsiff’s (a judicial officer at the lower court) cutcherry for being dishonoured, and whilst the causes continue unsettled, they instigate the petty ryots not to pay their dues.
(i) Who were jotedars?
Answer: Jotedars were rich peasants who owned large tracts of land and were able to exert control over the smaller ryots (peasants) in their region.
(ii) What changes took place in the condition of the jotedars in the 19th century?
Answer: In the 19th century, the jotedars became more powerful and were able to resist the authority of the zamindars effectively. They cultivated large portions of land and often did not pay the full revenue they owed, using their influence to avoid punishment.
(iii) How did the jotedars challenge the authority of the zamindars?
Answer: The jotedars challenged the authority of the zamindars by paying only a small portion of their due revenue, holding more land than their deeds entitled them to, and using legal and administrative systems to avoid punishment and assert their independence.
2 Read the following case carefully and answer the following questions
On clearance and settled cultivation
Passing through one village in the lower Rajmahal hills, Buchanan wrote: The view of the country is exceedingly fine, the cultivation, especially the narrow valleys of rice winding in all directions, the cleared lands with scattered trees, and the rocky hills are in perfection. All that is wanted is some appearance of progress in the area and a vastly extended and improved cultivation, of which the country is highly susceptible. Plantations of Asan and Palas, for Tessa (Tassar silk worms) and Lac, should occupy the place of woods to as great an extent as the demand will admit; the remainder might be all cleared, and the greater part cultivated, while what is not fit for the purpose, might rear Palmyra (palmyra) and Mowa (mahua).
(i) Who was Buchanan?
(a) Physician
(b) Surveyor
(c) Cartographer
(d) None of these
Answer: (a) Physician
(ii) Which hill is mentioned by Buchanan in this excerpt?
(a) Vindhyas
(b) Satpura
(c) Rajmahal
(d) Aravali
Answer: (c) Rajmahal
(iii) Which crop was cultivated by the local inhabitants of Rajmahal hills?
(a) Wheat
(b) Barley
(c) Rice
(d) Maize
Answer: (c) Rice
(iv) Name the hill folk who lived in the Rajmahal hills.
(a) Paharias
(b) Mundas
(c) Gonds
(d) Bhils
Answer: (a) Paharias
(v) Which tribal groups were considered settlers in the Rajmahal hills?
(a) Paharias
(b) Santhals
(c) Bhils
(d) Gonds
Answer: (b) Santhals
Extra/additional questions and answers
1. What were the main sources of income for the British East India Company in India?
Answer: The main sources of income for the British East India Company in India were the land revenue and taxes on the peasantry.
2. What is the meaning of “land settlement”?
Answer: Land settlement refers to the process by which the government officials determine the amount of land revenue payable. It consists of determining (a) the share of the produce or the rental to which the state is entitled, (b) the person or the persons who are liable to pay, and (c) the records of all private rights and interests in the land.
3. What was the Ijaradari or Contract System of Revenue Collection?
Answer: The Ijaradari or Contract System of Revenue Collection was introduced in 1765 by the Treaty of Allahabad, when the East India Company acquired the Diwani or the right to collect the revenue of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. Initially, the Company continued the system of revenue collection through the landlords or Zamindars. In 1772, Lord Warren Hastings decided to manage the land revenue system directly, authorizing the right to collect revenue to the highest bidder. However, this system was not successful, introducing uncertainty in the Company’s revenues and leading to neglect of agriculture by cultivators and Zamindars.
4. Explain the main features of the Permanent Settlement of Bengal introduced by Lord Cornwallis.
Answer: The main features of the Permanent Settlement of Bengal introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793 were:
- The Zamindars who collected the land revenue were made the owners of the land.
- The Zamindars had to pay a fixed amount of revenue to the Company, which could neither be increased nor decreased later.
- The Government would have a claim to 10/11 of the gross revenue, with the balance kept by the Zamindars.
- In case a Zamindar failed to pay the fixed amount of revenue, the Government had the right to confiscate some part of his landholding to recover the amount due.
- The farmers or the ryots were made the tenants of the Zamindars.
- The Zamindars were deprived of their administrative and judicial powers.
- The government assured the Zamindars that it would not interfere with their traditions.
Q. Why did the Permanent Settlement fail?
Answer: The Permanent Settlement failed due to several serious drawbacks. The settlement ignored the rights of tenants and small proprietors, whose land became the private property of the Zamindars. The Company had fixed exorbitant rates of land revenue, making it difficult for the landlords to collect much money from their tenants or ryots. In many cases, the lands of the landlords were sold due to non-payment of the fixed amount of land revenue to the Company. Additionally, the system led to neglect of agriculture as cultivators and Zamindars did not know who would be the collector of revenue the next year.
Q. Explain the role of Zamindars in the economic life of the people during the British rule.
Answer: During the British rule, Zamindars played a dominant role in the economic life of the people. They were big landlords who gave their land for cultivation to the peasants called ryots. They exploited the cultivators by various means and took no measures to improve their condition. When Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Land Settlement in Bengal, the Zamindars were made the permanent owners of the land. They were required to pay a fixed amount of revenue to the Company. The cultivators became the ryots or tenants of the landlords. Under this system, the landlords became richer because they had to pay only a fixed amount to the company. The Company did not fix any limit with regard to the collection of rent from the tenants. The landlords charged arbitrary rents from their ryots. The landlords could collect as much revenue from their tenants as they wished. As a result, they became wealthy and prosperous. As the Zamindars owed their wealth and prosperity to the British, they became the loyal supporters of the British rule. The British policies towards the Zamindars made them lethargic, and they began to lead a life of luxury. They practically took no measures to promote agriculture and increase production. Their high status in society allowed them to influence the politics of the country.
Q. What were the reasons for the Zamindars defaulting on payments?
Answer: The Zamindars defaulted on payments due to the following reasons:
- The Company pegged the demand high, arguing that the burden on the Zamindars would gradually decline as agricultural production increased and prices rose.
- The revenue amount was fixed and had to be paid under all circumstances. If the payment was not made by the specified date, the Zamindari was liable to be auctioned.
- The Permanent Settlement limited the powers of the Zamindars to collect revenue from the Ryot and manage his Zamindari, making it difficult for them to meet their revenue obligations.
Q. Describe the tactics used by Zamindars to resist pressures and avoid the auction of their estates.
Answer: The Zamindars devised various tactics to survive the pressures on them and save their estates from possible auction:
- Fictitious sales: They made fictitious sales by transferring their Zamindari to family members, as the East India Company had decreed that no property of women would be taken over.
- Manipulation of auctions: The Zamindars deliberately withheld the demand of the Company and allowed unpaid balances to accumulate. When the state officials auctioned a part of the estate, the Zamindar’s agents bought the property, outbidding other purchasers. They then refused to pay the purchase money, forcing the Company to resell the estate. This process was repeated endlessly, exhausting the state and the auction. Ultimately, the estate was sold back to the Zamindar at a low price.
- Resisting displacement: When outsiders bought an estate at an auction, they could not easily take possession. Their agents were often attacked by the former Zamindar’s supporters. Sometimes even loyal ryots resisted the entry of outsiders. This made it difficult for the new owners to take control of the estate, allowing the Zamindars to maintain their position.
These tactics, along with the state making the rules of revenue payment somewhat flexible and the end of the depression in prices in the early nineteenth century, helped the Zamindars consolidate their power and avoid the auction of their estates.
Q. What is the Fifth Report, and why was it significant?
Answer: The Fifth Report was a report on the administration and activities of the East India Company submitted to the British Parliament in 1813. It was significant because it became the basis of parliamentary debates on the affairs of the Company in India, reproducing petitions of the Zamindars and ryots, reports of collectors from different districts, and statistical tables on revenue and judicial administration of Bengal and Madras.
Q. Who were the Paharias and how did they earn their livelihood?
Answer: The Paharias were hill folks living around the Rajmahal hills in the 18th century. They earned their livelihood from forest products and by practicing shifting cultivation. They cleared patches of forests and grew a variety of pulses and millets for their food. They tilled the ground with hoes, cultivated the land for a few years, and then left it fallow to recover its fertility before moving to new areas. They also collected Mahua (a flower) for food, cocoons and resin for sale, and wood for charcoal production.
Q. Describe the conflict between the Paharias and the Santhals.
Answer: The conflict between the Paharias and the Santhals began when the latter started pouring into the Paharias’ area, clearing forests, cutting down trees, ploughing, and growing rice and cotton. The Santhals’ expansion threatened the Paharias’ way of life, which was dependent on forests and shifting cultivation. The Paharias were forced to retreat deeper into the Rajmahal hills, while the Santhals represented the power of the plough, bringing settled agriculture to the region. The battle between the hoe (Paharias) and the plough (Santhals) continued for many years, with the Santhals eventually displacing the Paharias and causing a significant impact on the latter’s lives and resources.
Q. What were the consequences of the Santhal Rebellion?
Answer: The consequences of the Santhal Rebellion, which took place in 1855-56 against the British, Zamindars, and moneylenders, were significant. After the rebellion was crushed, the British perception of the Santhals changed, viewing their villages as places of violent and savage deeds. The British aimed to pacify the Santhals by creating a new Pargana called the Santhal Pargana, carved out from the districts of Bhagalpur and Birbhum. The Santhal Pargana, with an area of 5,500 square miles, was established with the hope that by passing special laws for the Santhals, they could be pacified and conciliated.
Q. Who was Francis Buchanan and what was his role in India?
Answer: Francis Buchanan was a physician who served in the Bengal Medical service from 1794 to 1815. He also served as a surgeon to Lord Wellesley, the Governor-General of India. Later, at the request of the governor of Bengal, Buchanan undertook a detailed survey of the areas under the jurisdiction of the British East India Company. His role in India was to gather information and observe various aspects of the region, such as minerals, stones, soils, and local methods of salt-making and mining iron ore, for the commercial interests of the Company.
Q. What are the Deccan Riots and when did they begin?
Answer: The Deccan Riots were a series of agrarian riots in the Poona and Ahmednagar Districts in 1875, caused by the poverty and indebtedness of the cultivators, and they began on May 12, 1875.
Q. Describe the reasons behind the Deccan Riots.
Answer: The Deccan Riots were the result of the poverty and indebtedness of the cultivators due to the exploitative moneylending practices of Marwaris, who advanced loans at high interest rates, often with land mortgages. Approximately two-thirds of the debt was secured by the mortgage of land, leading to one-eighth of the occupation being transferred to moneylenders.
Q. What was the first act of hostility against the moneylenders during the Deccan Riots?
Answer: The first act of hostility against the moneylending class was shown by the inhabitants of the village Kardeh in Sirur Taluk of Poona district at the end of 1874.
Q. What were the important features of the Deccan Riots?
Answer: The important features of the Deccan Riots were murderous assaults on the moneylenders, plunder of their property, and the destruction of their bonds, decrees, and other documents. The main objective of the rioters was to obtain and destroy these documents to relieve their debt burden.
Q. What was the outcome of the Deccan Riots and the response of the British Government?
Answer: The Deccan Riots led to disturbances in 33 villages, with 951 persons arrested, and more than 500 convicted by the courts. In response, the British Government appointed a Commission in 1875 to inquire into the nature and causes of the riots. The Commission’s report, presented to the British Parliament in 1878, acknowledged the poverty and indebtedness of the cultivators as the chief causes of the riots and pointed out similar instances of violent riots in the past due to similar grievances.
Q. Explain the economic conditions that led to the Deccan Riots and the role of the Marwari moneylenders in these riots.
Answer: The economic conditions that led to the Deccan Riots included extreme poverty and indebtedness among the cultivators, worsened by the exploitative practices of Marwari moneylenders. Marwaris carried on a very lucrative business of advancing loans at high interest rates, and often required land mortgages as security. Consequently, about one-third of the occupants of Government lands were burdened with debts averaging about eighteen times their assessment, and approximately two-thirds of the debt was secured by the mortgage of land. This led to about one-eighth of the occupation being transferred to the moneylenders. The Marwari moneylenders became the main target of the rioters, who sought to destroy the bonds, decrees, and other documents that kept them in debt.
Q. Provide a detailed account of the events that unfolded during the Deccan Riots, including the initiation of violence and the spread of disturbances.
Answer: The Deccan Riots began with passive resistance in the village of Kardeh in Sirur Taluk of Poona district at the end of 1874, where villagers declared a social and economic boycott against Marwari moneylenders. They refused to serve the Marwaris as water carriers, barbers, or household servants, and annoyed them by throwing carcasses of dogs and rubbish in their houses. The Marwaris were forced to quit the village, and this example was followed by other villages.
The passive resistance turned violent on May 12, 1875, at Supa, a village in the Poona Collectorate, when ryots from surrounding areas looted houses and shops of some Gujarati sahukars (moneylenders) and set fire to one house. They demanded the Bahi Khatas (account books) and debt bonds and proceeded to burn them. The acts of violence soon spread to other villages in the Poona and Ahmednagar districts.
More or less disturbances occurred in 33 villages, with the police intervening to avert a large number of them. The police arrested about 951 persons, and more than 500 of them were convicted by the courts. The important features of these riots were murderous assaults on the moneylenders, plunder of their property, and the destruction of their bonds, decrees, and other documents. The main objective of the rioters was to obtain and destroy these documents to relieve their debt burden.
The rioters resorted to violent means only when the creditors refused to hand over the documents. Almost all the victims were Marwari sahukars, though in some rare cases, Brahman sahukars were also targeted. The last of the serious outbreaks occurred on June 15, 1875, but sporadic cases of violence were reported even later.
On September 10, about 100 men attacked, plundered, and burnt the house of a leading Gujar sahukar of the village Kukur in Satara. The rioters also destroyed all the papers in his house. The Deccan Riots demonstrated the extent of dissatisfaction and unrest among the cultivators, who were burdened by poverty, indebtedness, and exploitation by moneylenders.
Q. What was the Ryotwari settlement system?
Answer: The Ryotwari settlement system was introduced by the British in the Bombay Deccan, involving individual ownership of land, with each landlord responsible for payment of land revenue to the government. There was no settlement between the state and the peasants who owned and cultivated the land.
Q. What were the key features of the Ryotwari settlement system?
Answer: Key features of the Ryotwari settlement system were:
- Individual ownership of land and responsibility for land revenue payment.
- Accurate survey of each village with a map and description of all holdings.
- Classification of land according to productive capacity, with land revenue fixed in monetary terms.
- The rate of land revenue could be changed periodically.
- Cultivators could sell or mortgage their lands to raise loans during bad harvests, with government auctioning the land in case of default.
Q. What were the consequences of high revenue demands and peasant debt in the Bombay Deccan?
Answer: High revenue demands and peasant debt led to several negative consequences in the Bombay Deccan. The high revenue demand forced many peasants to desert their villages and migrate to new places. This problem was particularly acute in areas with poor soil and fluctuating rainfall. Government officials severely enforced revenue payment, with penalties imposed on entire villages if someone failed to pay. The situation worsened in the 1830s when agricultural prices fell, resulting in a further decline in peasants’ income. The 1832-34 famine added to the misery, leading to an alarming level of peasant indebtedness by the 1840s.
Q. How did the Cotton Boom affect the Deccan countryside?
Answer: The Cotton Boom had a significant impact on the Deccan countryside. Ryots in Deccan villages were advanced loans liberally by the Sahukars to plant cotton. During the American crisis, cotton production in Bombay Deccan expanded, with the land under cotton cultivation doubling between 1860 and 1864. By 1862, more than ninety per cent of cotton imports into Britain were coming from India.
Q. What were the consequences of the end of the Cotton Boom and the drying up of credit for the peasants?
Answer: The end of the Cotton Boom and the drying up of credit led to several negative consequences for the peasants. As Indian cotton exports to Britain declined, Sahukars in Maharashtra decided to close down their operations, restrict their advances, and demand repayment of outstanding debts. The state’s revenue demands increased, with new settlements leading to a 50-100% increase in revenue demand. Peasants were unable to pay these inflated demands, forcing them to turn to moneylenders for loans again. However, moneylenders were unwilling to advance loans, pushing peasants further into debt.
Q. What were the unjust methods adopted by the moneylenders in the context of the Deccan Riots Commission?
Answer: The moneylenders adopted several unjust methods, as cited by the Deccan Riots Commission:
- Charging excessive interest, sometimes as high as 2000% on a loan of 100, violating customary norms.
- Manipulating laws and forging documents and accounts.
- Using the 1859 Limitation Law to force ryots to sign new bonds every three years, entering the unpaid balance (original loan and accumulated interest) as the principal and calculating a new set of interest charges.
- Refusing to give receipts when loans were repaid.
- Entering fictitious figures in bonds.
- Buying the peasant’s harvest at low prices.
- Ultimately taking over the helpless peasant’s property.
- Making ryots sign and put thumb impressions on documents without allowing them to know the terms inserted by the moneylender, leading to suspicion and helplessness among the peasants.
Q. What was the first evil consequence of the British rule according to Dr. R.C. Majumdar?
Answer: The first evil consequence of the British rule was the economic exploitation of India.
Q. How did the British economic policies affect the village economy?
Answer: The British economic policies forced farmers to pay a fixed amount of land revenue to the Company in cash, leading to the commercialization of agriculture. Farmers had to produce crops not only for their own needs but also to sell in the market, sometimes raising loans to pay land revenue.
Q. What is commercialization of agriculture?
Answer: Commercialization of agriculture is the shift from producing crops for personal consumption to producing crops for sale in the market.
Q. Explain the impact of commercialization of agriculture on Indian farmers.
Answer: The commercialization of agriculture had both positive and negative impacts on Indian farmers. On the positive side, it led to the growth of agriculture in the country, the introduction of new varieties of crops, and increased contact with towns, which exposed farmers to new ideas. On the negative side, Indian farmers initially faced competition from other countries with mechanized agriculture and better manures, leading to lower profits. They also became dependent on moneylenders who exploited their weak financial position.
Q. What were the various causes of poverty and indebtedness of the peasants under the British rule?
Answer: The causes of poverty and indebtedness of the peasants under the British rule were:
- High rate of land revenue, leading to growth of poverty and fragmentation of holdings.
- Land becoming personal property, causing fragmentation of holdings and uneconomical cultivation.
- Rigid methods of land revenue collection, forcing peasants to lose land.
- Burden of taxes on daily needs, impoverishing farmers further.
- Farmers having to buy firewood, leading to decreased agricultural produce.
- Money spent on religious practices and ceremonies, causing loans that were difficult to repay.
- Increasing indebtedness to moneylenders, who exploited peasants and seized their land.
- Natural calamities like droughts, famines, floods, and epidemics, worsening the condition of peasants.
Q. What measures were taken by the British government to protect the interests of the cultivators?
Answer: The British government passed Tenancy Acts to safeguard the interests of the peasants. They also established Cooperative Credit Societies to advance loans to farmers at low interest rates and prohibited the sale of land by cultivators to non-agriculturists. However, despite these measures, the problem of rural indebtedness remained unsolved and the economic condition of the peasants worsened.
33. How did the peasants fight for their rights and demands?
Answer: The peasants established committees in the villages to protect their interests, linked with big peasant unions, and participated in the establishment of organizations such as the Agricultural Labour Union, Central Farmers Union, and All India Kisan Sabha. They started a vigorous movement against imperialist and feudal forces, took part in the freedom struggle, and only after India’s independence was the problem of rural indebtedness solved to a great extent, leading to improvement in their conditions.
Extra/additional MCQs
1. Which treaty granted the British East India Company the right to collect revenue in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa?
A. Treaty of Allahabad B. Treaty of Amritsar C. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle D. Treaty of Bassein
Answer: A. Treaty of Allahabad
2. Who introduced the Ijaradari or Contract System of Revenue Collection?
A. Lord Cornwallis B. Lord Warren Hastings C. Lord Curzon D. Lord Clive
Answer: B. Lord Warren Hastings
3. In which year was the Permanent Settlement of Bengal introduced?
A. 1765 B. 1772 C. 1789 D. 1793
Answer: D. 1793
5. Who introduced the Permanent Settlement of Bengal?
A. Lord Cornwallis B. Lord Warren Hastings C. Lord Curzon D. Lord Clive
Answer: A. Lord Cornwallis
6. Under the Permanent Settlement, what fraction of the gross revenue was claimed by the Government?
A. 1/11 B. 10/11 C. 9/11 D. 1/2
Answer: B. 10/11
Q. Who became the tenants of the Zamindars under the Permanent Settlement of Bengal?
A. British officials B. Indian merchants C. Ryots D. Tax collectors
Answer: C. Ryots
Q. What powers were stripped from the Zamindars under the Permanent Settlement of Bengal?
A. Legislative B. Administrative and judicial C. Military D. Diplomatic
Answer: B. Administrative and judicial
Q. Which Indian territory was the first to experience colonial rule?
A. Madras B. Bombay C. Calcutta D. Bengal
Answer: D. Bengal
Q. What was the primary source of income for native Indian rulers before British rule?
A. Trade B. Land revenue C. Excise taxes D. Customs duties
Answer: B. Land revenue
Q. What happened to the land of the landlords who failed to pay the fixed amount of land revenue under the Permanent Settlement of Bengal?
A. Confiscated B. Mortgaged C. Seized D. Sold
Answer: A. Confiscated
Q. Who were the big landlords that played a dominant role in the economic life of the people?
A. Ryots B. Zamindars C. Jotedars D. Mandals
Answer: B. Zamindars
Q. What were the peasants called who cultivated the land given by the landlords?
A. Jotedars B. Ryots C. Zamindars D. Haoladars
Answer: B. Ryots
Q. Who introduced the Permanent Land Settlement in Bengal?
A. Lord Cornwallis B. Lord Clive C. Lord Curzon D. Lord Dalhousie
Answer: A. Lord Cornwallis
Q. What system made the Zamindars wealthier because they only had to pay a fixed amount to the company?
A. Ryotwari System B. Mahalwari System C. Permanent Land Settlement D. Land Reforms
Answer: C. Permanent Land Settlement
Q. Who became the loyal supporters of the British rule due to their wealth and prosperity?
A. Ryots B. Zamindars C. Jotedars D. Haoladars
Answer: B. Zamindars
Q. What was the primary purpose of the Permanent Settlement?
A. Encouraging investment in agriculture B. Decreasing the Zamindar’s power C. Increasing the revenue of the British D. Reducing the influence of the Jotedars
Answer: A. Encouraging investment in agriculture
Q. Which class of rich peasants emerged as commanding figures in some areas?
A. Ryots B. Jotedars C. Zamindars D. Haoladars
Answer: D. Haoladars
Q. What was the occupation of the Jotedars in addition to being landowners?
A. Moneylenders B. Soldiers C. Tax collectors D. Administrators
Answer: A. Moneylenders
Q. Who were the sharecroppers who cultivated land for the Jotedars?
A. Ryots B. Adhiyars C. Bargadars D. Mandals
Answer: B. Adhiyars, C. Bargadars
Q. What method did the Zamindars use to manipulate the auction of their estates?
A. Fictitious sales B. Forceful resistance C. Withholding revenue D. Judicial intervention
Answer: A. Fictitious sales
Q. In which year was the Fifth Report submitted to the British Parliament?
A. 1760 B. 1780 C. 1813 D. 1833
Answer: C. 1813
Q. What were the main sources of livelihood for the Paharias?
A. Farming and fishing B. Forest products and shifting cultivation C. Trading and weaving D. Mining and industry
Answer: B. Forest products and shifting cultivation
Q. Which tribe began to settle in the Rajmahal hills area in the 1780s?
A. Paharias B. Santhals C. Jotedars D. Zamindars
Answer: B. Santhals
Q. What was the main tool used by the Paharias for shifting cultivation?
A. Plough B. Hoe C. Spade D. Sickle
Answer: B. Hoe
Q. Which rebellion occurred in 1855-56?
A. Sepoy Mutiny B. Santhal Rebellion C. Paharia Uprising D. Mappila Revolt
Answer: B. Santhal Rebellion
Q. What was the occupation of Francis Buchanan in India?
A. Geologist B. Surveyor C. Physician D. Anthropologist
Answer: C. Physician
Q. Which area was demarcated as Damin-i-koh for the Santhals?
A. Foothills of Rajmahal B. Lower slopes of Rajmahal C. Upper hills of Rajmahal D. Jangal Mahals
Answer: A. Foothills of Rajmahal
Q. What was the primary objective of the British in clearing forests and establishing settled agriculture?
A. Increase revenue B. Protect wildlife C. Preserve natural resources D. Improve the environment
Answer: A. Increase revenue
Q. Which flower did the Paharias collect for food?
A. Lotus B. Rose C. Mahua D. Jasmine
Answer: C. Mahua
Q. After the suppression of the Santhal Rebellion, which new Pargana was created for the Santhals?
A. Bhagalpur Pargana B. Birbhum Pargana C. Santhal Pargana D. Damin-i-koh Pargana
Answer: C. Santhal Pargana
Q. In which year did the Deccan Riots occur?
A. 1873 B. 1874 C. 1875 D. 1876
Answer: C. 1875
Q. Which districts were affected by the Deccan Riots?
A. Poona and Ahmednagar B. Poona and Satara C. Ahmednagar and Satara D. Poona and Nagpur
Answer: A. Poona and Ahmednagar
Q. What was the primary cause of the Deccan Riots?
A. Land disputes B. Religious conflicts C. Poverty and indebtedness D. Political unrest
Answer: C. Poverty and indebtedness
Q. Which group of moneylenders were mainly targeted during the Deccan Riots?
A. Gujaratis B. Marwaris C. Brahmans D. Bengalis
Answer: B. Marwaris
Q. What was the primary objective of the rioters during the Deccan Riots?
A. Land occupation B. Political representation C. Destroying debt documents D. Religious conversion
Answer: C. Destroying debt documents
Q. What was the first village to show hostility against moneylenders?
A. Supa B. Kukur C. Kardeh D. Satara
Answer: C. Kardeh
Q. On what date did the first actual outbreak of the Deccan Riots take place?
A. April 12, 1875 B. May 12, 1874 C. May 12, 1875 D. June 15, 1875
Answer: C. May 12, 1875
Q. How many people were arrested during the Deccan Riots?
A. 500 B. 951 C. 1000 D. 1200
Answer: B. 951
Q. In which village did the last of the serious outbreaks occur?
A. Kardeh B. Kukur C. Supa D. Satara
Answer: D. Satara
Q. In which year was the report of the Deccan Riots Commission presented to the British Parliament?
A. 1876 B. 1877 C. 1878 D. 1879
Answer: C. 1878
Q. Which region had the British introduced the Permanent Settlement system in?
A. Bombay Deccan B. Punjab C. Bengal D. Madras
Answer: C. Bengal
Q. In the Ryotwari settlement system, who was responsible for paying the land revenue?
A. Village headman B. State C. Peasants D. Landlords
Answer: D. Landlords
Q. What was used to fix the land revenue in the Ryotwari settlement system?
A. Gold B. Land area C. Money D. Crops
Answer: C. Money
Q. During which years did the famine strike in the Bombay Deccan?
A. 1820-1822 B. 1832-1834 C. 1840-1842 D. 1850-1852
Answer: B. 1832-1834
Q. What was the main cause of the Cotton Boom?
A. Indian government policies B. British colonial incentives C. American Civil War D. Technological advancements
Answer: C. American Civil War
Q. During the Cotton Boom, what percentage of cotton imports into Britain were coming from India by 1862?
A. 50% B. 75% C. 90% D. 100%
Answer: C. 90%
Q. Which two events marked the end of the Cotton Boom?
A. Drought and famine B. Civil War and British colonial withdrawal C. Civil War end and revival of American cotton production D. Indian independence and economic downturn
Answer: C. Civil War end and revival of American cotton production
Q. What was the main purpose of the 1859 Limitation Law?
A. Reducing land revenue B. Checking the accumulation of interest C. Regulating moneylenders D. Encouraging agricultural expansion
Answer: B. Checking the accumulation of interest
Q. What did the moneylenders refuse to give when loans were repaid?
A. New loans B. Receipts C. Interest rates D. Property
Answer: B. Receipts
Q. In the Deccan Riots Commission, what interest rate was cited as being charged on a loan of 100?
A. 100% B. 500% C. 1000% D. 2000%
Answer: D. 2000%
Q. According to Dr. R.C. Majumdar, what was the first evil consequence of British rule in India?
A. Social discrimination B. Religious persecution C. Political instability D. Economic exploitation
Answer: D. Economic exploitation
Q. Before the British rule, the majority of the Indian people lived in:
A. Towns B. Cities C. Villages D. Slums
Answer: C. Villages
Q. Who collected land revenue in traditional Indian villages?
A. Moneylenders B. British officials C. State D. Village headman
Answer: C. State
Q. What kind of agriculture was introduced by the British in India?
A. Subsistence B. Organic C. Commercial D. Cooperative
Answer: C. Commercial
Q. What was the main reason for the commercialization of agriculture in India?
A. Industrial Revolution B. Green Revolution C. Agricultural Revolution D. Cultural Revolution
Answer: A. Industrial Revolution
Q. Who observed that the British Government accelerated the commercialization and specialization of Indian agriculture?
A. Dr. R.C. Majumdar B. A.R. Desai C. Karl Marx D. Mahatma Gandhi
Answer: B. A.R. Desai
Q. In which Indian region was wheat primarily grown under the British rule?
A. Bengal B. Punjab C. Gujarat D. Khandesh
Answer: B. Punjab
Q. Which crop was suitable for cultivation in the land of Bengal?
A. Cotton B. Jute C. Wheat D. Sugarcane
Answer: B. Jute
Q. What was one of the major causes of the growth of poverty and indebtedness during the 19th century?
A. Low crop yield B. High rate of land revenue C. Industrialization D. Urban migration
Answer: B. High rate of land revenue
Q. What led to the fragmentation of landholdings in India?
A. Land reforms B. Agricultural policies C. Partition of family land D. Deforestation
Answer: C. Partition of family land
Q. What was the traditional forced labor system called?
A. Serfdom B. Corvee C. Begar D. Slavery
Answer: C. Begar
Q. Which sector of the Indian population was most affected by rural indebtedness?
A. Zamindars B. Moneylenders C. Peasants D. Government officials
Answer: C. Peasants
Q. What was the main cause of the growing misery of the Indian peasant under the British rule?
A. Lack of education B. Indebtedness to moneylenders C. Poor health D. Social discrimination
Answer: B. Indebtedness to moneylenders
Q. By the end of the 19th century, what percentage of Indian peasants were under debts?
A. 10% B. 25% C. 33% D. 50%
Answer: C. 33%
65. What was the estimated total rural debt in India in 1911?
A. 100 crore B. 300 crore C. 500 crore D. 1000 crore
Answer: B. 300 crore
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