Early Cities: NBSE Class 11 History (Arts) questions, answers

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Get summary, textual answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF to NBSE Class 11 (Arts) History (Themes in World History) Chapter 3 Section A: Early Societies- Early Cities: (Focus on Iraq, 3rd Millennium BC, Growth of Towns, Nature of Early Urban Societies and Historians’ Debate on uses of Writing). However, the educational materials should only be used for reference and students are encouraged to make necessary changes.

Summary

Early humans lived in groups, with the family as the basic unit of society. As they became food producers and led a more settled life, family units began to form villages with mud houses surrounded by protective fences. These villages were often located near river valleys for easy access to water for agriculture.

Over time, some villages grew into larger settlements as new occupations and trade emerged. Surplus food could be exchanged for other goods, and craftsmen began to live together, leading to the growth of towns. The first phase of city growth began with the river valley civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China around 5,000-6,000 years ago. These towns became centers for merchants, craftsmen, traders, and government officials, leading to a division between urban and rural life.

Cities have generally grown due to economic growth, natural increase, and rural-urban migration. People move to cities for economic opportunities, while factors like droughts, famines, or rural poverty may “push” them away from the countryside. Cities have historically been centers of high civilization, receptive to new ideas and change, and focused on wealth accumulation and commerce. The decline of commerce can lead to the decline or disappearance of a city, as seen in European urban centers between the 5th and 9th centuries AD due to increasing trade hazards in the Mediterranean Sea.

Exercise/textual questions and answers

Very Short Answer Questions

1. Write the names of popular languages in Mesopotamia.

Answer: Sumerian, Akkadian

2. Why was Mesopotamia important for Europeans?

Answer: European urban centres dwindled and almost disappeared because of the increasing hazards to safe trading on the Mediterranean Sea brought by the Barbarian and Muslim invasions.

3. When did archaeological discovery take place in Mesopotamia? In which two places was excavation work done?

Answer: Archaeological discovery took place in the 1850s. The two places where excavation work was done are Ur and Uruk.

4. When was cultivation in Mesopotamia started?

Answer: Cultivation in Mesopotamia started around 5000 BCE.

5. In which part of Mesopotamia (Iraq) were cities and writing systems emerged?

Answer: Cities and writing systems emerged in southern Mesopotamia (Iraq).

Short Answer Questions

1. Explain the concept of city.

Answer: We generally think of the city as a “modern” or recent development. But cities have existed for thousands of years and have their roots in the great river civilisations of Mesopotamia, Egypt and China. The English word “city” comes from the Latin word “Civitas”, which describes a highly organised community like the city-states of ancient Greece. The life of the Greeks in the city-states was completely absorbed in the life of the city. The city provided a man with his religion, his amusements, his education and sought to satisfy his every need​.

2. Write a short note on ancient society.

Answer: The life of early man was revolutionised when he became a food grower and began to lead a settled life. The early men lived in groups, but the basic unit of society was the family. It was the earliest form of society. The early phases of the development of man and society have come to light by the discoveries of the archaeologists which they have made from the study of fossils, remains of bones, stone tools and cave paintings​.

3. How did village come into existence?

Answer: Villages came into existence when men became food growers and life became more settled. Families began to build mud houses with thatched roofs for shelter and protection. These houses were close to one another and surrounded by a common fence of prickly bushes or mud walls. A number of families constituted a village. The villages were small, and the huts were close to each other​.

4. How were villages transformed into cities?

Answer: The number of people living in the villages gradually increased. As the needs of the villagers increased, new occupations were started. These villages became prosperous because they were now producing more food than they required for their subsistence. They could now exchange their surplus food for other things such as cloth, pottery, ornaments, etc. It was no longer necessary for every family living in the village to work in the fields and produce its own food. The weavers, carpenters, or potters exchanged the articles which they produced for food from those families which produced food. With the growth of new professions and an increase in trade, the craftsmen began to live together, and thus big villages grew into towns​.

5. What were the reasons for migration of people from village to cities?

Answer: People move to the cities for various reasons. But the most significant reason is economic. When a city’s economy is prospering, it attracts people from the villages. The promise of jobs and comforts, glamour and glitter, attracts people to the cities. There are also “Push” factors. Droughts, famines, or exploitation of farmers can cause extreme rural poverty and that “pushes” people out of the villages and to settle in the towns​.

6. Write a short note on the famous city ‘Uruk’.

Answer: Uruk was one of the earliest towns of Mesopotamia. It grew to the extent of 250 hectares around 3,000 BC and had a defensive wall. War captives and other people worked for the temple and public utility work, being paid rations. There were technical advances at Uruk around 3,000 BC, with the use of bronze tools and the construction of brick columns. The temple halls had beautiful paintings, and there were superb achievements in imported stone sculpture. Uruk was a large and beautiful city, a trading centre with flourishing industries​.

Long Answer Questions

1. After studying the previous chapter of this book, describe the growth of early societies.

Answer: The growth of early societies involved significant transitions and developments:

Transition from Nomadic to Settled Life: About 10,000 years ago, humans began shifting from nomadic lifestyles to settled agriculture. They learned to cultivate crops like wheat, barley, peas, and pulses, and domesticated animals such as sheep, goats, and cattle. This led to the establishment of more permanent settlements.

Development of Villages and Towns: Permanent settlements encouraged the construction of durable structures in villages, often located in river valleys. Surplus food production led to trade and new professions. Craftspeople exchanged goods for food, facilitating the growth of villages into towns .

Rise of Early Cities: Around 5,000 to 6,000 years ago, river valley civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China marked the first phase of city growth. These towns became centers for merchants, craftsmen, traders, and officials .

Factors Influencing Urban Growth: Cities grew due to economic opportunities, natural increase, and rural-urban migration. Prosperous cities attracted people from villages, while droughts and rural poverty pushed people towards urban areas .

Significance of Early Cities: Cities like those in Mesopotamia were crucial for their contributions to trade and the development of writing systems. Early cities such as Ur and Uruk exemplified complex social hierarchies, economic activities, and cultural developments .

2. In the beginning of urban life, which new institutions came into existence?

Answer: The early settlers began to build and rebuild temples at some selected spots in their villages. Temples were the residences of various gods such as the moon God of Ur or of Inanna of the Goddess of love and war. When bricks began to be used for the construction of temples, the temples became larger with several rooms around open courtyards. The worshippers of God brought grain, curd and fish. The God was considered as the owner of agricultural fields, the fisheries and the local community. Records of production and the distribution and allotment of grains, plough animals, bread, beer, fish, etc. were maintained. The temple gradually developed its activities and became the main urban institution. The early Mesopotamian countryside saw repeated conflicts over land and water. In the regions in which there were continuous warfare, the chiefs who were successful in war, obliged their followers by distributing loot, and took prisoners from the defeated groups and employed them as their guards and servants. Thus, they could increase their influence and clout. At first, such settlers did not settle at one place. But later, these leaders thought of increasing the well-being of the community by creating new institutions and practices. The victorious chiefs began to offer precious booty to gods and thus beautify community temples. They sent their men to fetch fine stone and metal for the benefit of gods and the temples. They organised distribution of temple wealth in an efficient way. In the cycle of development, the leaders encouraged the settlement of villagers close to themselves, to be able to rapidly raise an army. Besides, the people would feel safe if they lived in close proximity to one another.

3. Describe the origin of the cities and the growth of urban societies.

Answer: These villages were often found in the river valleys, where water was easily available for their crops. The number of people living in the villages gradually increased. As the needs of the villagers increased, new occupations were started. These villages became prosperous because they were now producing more food than they required for their subsistence. They could now exchange their surplus food for other things such as cloth, pottery, ornaments, etc. It was no longer necessary for every family living in the village to work in the fields and produce its own food. The weavers or carpenters or potters exchanged their articles which they produced for food from those families which produced food. With the growth of new professions and increase in trade, the craftsmen began to live together and thus big villages grew into towns. The beginnings of living of the people in the towns is generally taken as the start of civilisation. The first phase in the growth of cities began between five and six thousand years ago with settlements which grew into what we call river valley civilisations of Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), Egypt, India and China. These towns no more depended on agriculture and domestic animals. As the civilisation grew in size and trade routes grew in numbers, these towns became the centres for merchants, craftsmen, traders and government officials. The division between “town” and “country”, “urban” and “rural” had begun. A similar path was taken by later civilisations such as the Greek, Iranian, Roman and Great Zimbabwe.

4. On which basis can we classify urbanisation in Mesopotamia? Explain.

Answer: Settlements began to develop in southern Mesopotamia from 5,000 BC. Some of these settlements gradually developed into earliest cities. These cities were of various kinds (i) cities which developed around temples (ii) those that developed as centres of trade (iii) imperial cities. The early settlers began to build and rebuild temples at some selected spots in their villages. Temples were the residences of various gods such as the moon God of Ur or of Inanna of the Goddess of love and war. When bricks began to be used for the construction of temples, the temples became larger with several rooms around open courtyards. The worshippers of God brought grain, curd and fish. The God was considered as the owner of agricultural fields, the fisheries and the local community. Records of production and the distribution and allotment of grains, plough animals, bread, beer, fish, etc. were maintained. The temple gradually developed its activities and became the main urban institution.

5. Describe briefly the features of early cities.

Answer: Ur was one of the earliest cities of Mesopotamia excavated in 1830’s. The ordinary houses of this town had narrow winding streets. It indicates that the wheeled carts could not have reached many of the houses. Narrow winding streets and the irregular shapes of house plots also indicate that there was no system of town planning. There were no street drains or sewage system of the kind which existed in contemporary Mohenjodaro. Instead, in the inner courtyards of the Ur houses, there were drains and clay pipes. It is presumed that house roofs slopped inwards and rainwater was channelled via the drainpipes into sumps in the inner courtyards. In the Ur houses, light came into the rooms not from the windows but from doorways opening into the courtyards. This would have given privacy to the families living there. The omen tablets at Ur have recorded many superstitions about the houses. For instance, it was believed that a raised threshold brought wealth; a front door that did not open towards another house was luck but if the main wooden door opened outwards, the wife would be a torment to her husband. The Ur town had a cemetery which had the graves of royalty and commoners. But a few individuals were also found buried under the floors of ordinary houses.

Uruk was one of the earliest towns of Mesopotamia. As mentioned earlier, the leaders encouraged the settlement of villagers close to them, to be able to rapidly get an army together. Uruk was one of the towns which had grown from the settlement of the villagers. At Uruk, we find depictions of armed heroes and their victims. Careful archaeological surveys have shown that around 3,000 BC when Uruk grew to the enormous extent of 250 hectares, it was twice as large as Mohenjodaro would be in later centuries. Uruk had also a defensive wall. From about 4,000 BC to about AD 400 C, and by about 2800 BC the city had extended to 400 hectares. The captives of war and other people were required to work for the temple and public utility work of the town. Those who were put to work were paid rations. A large number of ration lists have been found which give the names of the workers and the quantities of grain, cloth or oil allotted to them. The archaeologists have estimated that one of the temples took 1,500 men working ten hours a day. The temple took five years to build. Hundreds of people were employed to build the temple. There were also technical advances at Uruk around 3,000 BC. Bronze tools began to be used for various crafts. The architects learnt to construct brick columns because no suitable wood was available to build large halls. The temple halls had beautiful paintings, painted in different colours. In sculpture, there were superb achievements in imported stones. In brief, Uruk was a large and beautiful city. It was a trading centre and had flourishing industries.

Answer: Ur, one of Mesopotamia’s earliest cities, was excavated in the 1830s. Its narrow, winding streets and irregular house plots indicate a lack of town planning and inaccessibility for wheeled carts. Unlike Mohenjodaro, Ur had no street drains or sewage systems, instead featuring drains and clay pipes in house courtyards to manage rainwater. Privacy was maintained by bringing light into rooms through doorways from the courtyards rather than windows.

Superstitions recorded on omen tablets influenced house designs, such as raised thresholds for wealth and specific door orientations for luck. Ur’s cemetery contained both royal and common graves, with some individuals buried under house floors.

Uruk, another early Mesopotamian town, expanded rapidly due to the settlement of nearby villagers. By around 3,000 BC, it covered 250 hectares, twice the size of later Mohenjodaro, and eventually reached 400 hectares. Uruk had a defensive wall and required war captives and others to work on public projects, with workers paid in rations. Ration lists detail the quantities of grain, cloth, or oil allotted to them.

Uruk saw significant technical advances around 3,000 BC, including the use of bronze tools and the construction of brick columns. Its temple halls featured colourful paintings and imported stone sculptures, highlighting its status as a large, beautiful city and a thriving trade and industry centre.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. On the basis of origin and development in how many parts were cities divided?

A. one B. two C. three D. six

Answer: C. three

2. Who founded the city of Babylon?

A. Sargon of Akkad B. Enmerkar C. Gilgamesh D. None of these

Answer: D. None of these

3. Who was Zimrilim?

A. King of Mari B. Chief Minister of Uruk C. King of Kerkuk D. All the above

Answer: A. King of Mari

4. Ziggurat was:

A. Temple of rain god B. Horse of war C. A type of weapon D. The main gate of the city

Answer: A. Temple of rain god

5. Ziggurat means:

A. Name of the god B. Hill of Heaven C. Palace of Uruk D. Administrative System

Answer: B. Hill of Heaven

Case-based Question

Read the following passage and answer the questions.

We know from the legal texts (disputes, inheritance matters, etc.) that in Mesopotamian society the nuclear family (a nuclear family comprises of a man, his wife and children) was the norm, although a married son and his family often resided with his parents. The father was the head of the family. We know a little about the procedures for marriage. When a declaration was made about the willingness to marry, the bride’s parents gave their consent to the marriage. Then a gift was given by the groom’s people to the bride’s people. When the wedding took place, gifts were exchanged by both parties, who ate together and made offerings in a temple. When her mother-in-law came to fetch her, the bride was given her share of the inheritance by her father. The father’s house, herds and fields etc., were inherited by the sons.

1. What types of families were common in the Mesopotamian society?

Answer: In Mesopotamian society, generally the families were nuclear. But in some cases, married sons and their families resided with their parents.

2. What is the meaning of a nuclear family?

Answer: A nuclear family comprises of a man, his wife and children.

3. Who was the head of the family?

Answer: The father was the head of the family.

4. What do we know about the procedure for marriage in the Mesopotamian society?

Answer: A marriage was made when the bride’s parents gave their consent to the marriage. Gift was then given by the groom’s people to the bride’s people. At the time of marriage, gifts were exchanged by both the parties. They ate together and made offerings to the temple. When her mother-in-law came to fetch her, the bride was given her share of the inheritance by her father. But father’s house, herds, fields, etc. were inherited by the sons.

Extra/additional questions and answers

1. What is the origin of the English word “city”?

Answer: The English word “city” comes from the Latin word “Civitas”.

Q. When did the first phase of city growth begin?

Answer: The first phase of city growth began between five and six thousand years ago.

Q. Where did the early cities of Mesopotamia emerge?

Answer: The early cities of Mesopotamia emerged in modern Iraq.

Q. What was the basis for the development of later towns in Western Asia around 2000 BC?

Answer: The basis for the development of later towns in Western Asia around 2000 BC was the Mesopotamian model.

Q. What was the lifestyle of Paleolithic Age humans?

Answer: In the Paleolithic Age, humans were wanderers who lived in groups for mutual protection and help. As they became food growers, their lifestyle became more settled, and family units formed, leading to the construction of mud houses and the formation of villages.

Q. How did villages transition into towns?

Answer: Villages transitioned into towns as the population increased, leading to the development of new occupations and trade. Prosperous villages with surplus food allowed for specialization of professions like weaving, carpentry, and pottery, which led to the growth of larger settlements.

Q. What factors contributed to the growth of cities?

Answer: The growth of cities resulted from economic growth, natural increase, and rural-urban migration. Additionally, governments sometimes created new cities to manage population burdens, and new capitals were established.

Q. What role have cities played in history?

Answer: Cities have been promoters and centers of high civilization, fostering new ideas and changes, and serving as market places and trade centers. Urban centers were crucial for wealth accumulation, better living standards, and freedom.

Q. How did the cities in Mesopotamia differ from those in the Indus Valley?

Answer: Mesopotamian cities had winding lanes and grew organically without preconceived plans, unlike the rigid, military-looking cities of the Indus Valley, which had structured layouts.

Q. What were the characteristics of early urban societies in Mesopotamia?

Answer: Early urban societies in Mesopotamia were characterized by the existence of urban settlements, monumental architecture, and writing by 3,500 BC. These cities, such as Urik, Amri, Tape Gawra, and Kerkuk, were developed in the land between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. The Mesopotamian cities were distinct from others due to their winding lanes and organic growth without a preconceived town plan.

Q. What led to the division between “town” and “country” in ancient civilizations?

Answer: The division between “town” and “country” in ancient civilizations began with the growth of settlements into towns that no longer depended solely on agriculture and domestic animals. As these towns grew in size and trade routes expanded, they became centers for merchants, craftsmen, traders, and government officials, leading to a clear distinction between urban and rural areas. This pattern was followed by later civilizations such as the Greek, Iranian, Roman, and Great Zimbabwe.

Q. What impact did the ruin of commerce have on European cities between the 5th and 9th centuries AD?

Answer: The ruin of commerce or trade between the 5th and 9th centuries AD led to the decline and near disappearance of European urban centers. This was due to the increasing hazards to safe trading on the Mediterranean Sea brought by Barbarian and Muslim invasions. As a result, many cities faced extinction as they were heavily dependent on trade for their sustenance and growth.

Q. How did early human settlements evolve into complex urban societies?

Answer: Early human settlements evolved into complex urban societies through several stages. Initially, Paleolithic humans were wanderers living in groups for mutual protection and help. As they became food growers, their lifestyle became more settled, leading to the formation of family units and construction of mud houses with thatched roofs for protection. These houses, built close to one another, formed small villages, often found in river valleys where water was easily available. As the population in these villages increased, new occupations emerged, leading to prosperity through surplus food production and trade. Specialization of professions like weaving, carpentry, and pottery further fueled the growth of larger settlements. The first phase of urbanization began between five and six thousand years ago with the river valley civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China. These towns became centers for merchants, craftsmen, traders, and government officials, marking the division between urban and rural areas. The evolution of these settlements into complex urban societies was driven by economic growth, natural increase, and rural-urban migration, making cities the promoters and centers of high civilization.

Q. What were the main reasons behind the movement of people to cities throughout history?

Answer: Throughout history, people moved to cities primarily for economic reasons. A prospering city’s economy attracted people from villages with the promise of jobs, comforts, glamour, and glitter. This phenomenon, known as the “pull” factor, made cities attractive destinations. Conversely, “push” factors also played a significant role, including extreme rural poverty caused by droughts, famines, or exploitation of farmers. These conditions forced people to leave their villages and seek better opportunities in towns. Cities, as centers of commerce and trade, offered more opportunities for wealth accumulation and better living standards. Additionally, urban dwellers were more receptive to new ideas and changes, further contributing to the allure of city life. The presence of a middle class in cities, free from the conservatism of rural traditions, also instigated a sense of freedom and progress, making cities hubs of high civilization and innovation.

Q. What does city population depend on?

Answer: The products or services of people living in villages or other cities.

Q. What is a mark of urban life?

Answer: Division of labour.

Q. What does the urban economy include besides food production?

Answer: Trade, manufacturers, crafts, and services.

Q. What is necessary for urban development?

Answer: An efficient transport system.

Q. What was one of the earliest cities of Mesopotamia?

Answer: The city of Ur.

Q. Where did light come into the rooms in Ur houses?

Answer: From doorways opening into the courtyards.

Q. When did settlements begin to develop in southern Mesopotamia?

Answer: From 5,000 BC.

Q. Why is an efficient transport system necessary for urban development?

Answer: An efficient transport system is necessary for urban development because it ensures the movement of goods and people. Water routes are the cheapest mode of transportation, as seen in ancient Mesopotamia where canals and natural channels facilitated trade between settlements.

Q. How did the temples in southern Mesopotamia develop?

Answer: The temples in southern Mesopotamia developed as villagers built and rebuilt them at selected spots, becoming larger with several rooms around open courtyards. These temples served as residences for gods and gradually became the main urban institutions, centralizing economic and social activities.

Q. What role did victorious chiefs play in the development of early Mesopotamian towns?

Answer: Victorious chiefs in early Mesopotamia increased their influence by distributing loot and employing prisoners as guards and servants. They enhanced community well-being by creating new institutions and practices, offering precious booty to gods, and organizing the distribution of temple wealth efficiently.

Q. How did Uruk develop as a town in Mesopotamia?

Answer: Uruk developed as a town by encouraging the settlement of villagers close to leaders, allowing rapid army assembly and enhancing safety. It grew significantly in size and became a major trading and industrial center with advances in construction, crafts, and artistic achievements.

Q. Describe the emergence of towns in southern Mesopotamia and the role of temples in their development.

Answer: Settlements began in southern Mesopotamia around 5,000 BC, gradually developing into cities of various kinds: temple cities, trade centers, and imperial cities. Temples, built and rebuilt at selected spots, became main urban institutions. Gods were considered owners of agricultural fields, fisheries, and the local community. Temples maintained records of production, distribution, and allotment of resources. Temples also organized social and economic activities, requiring the keeping of written records. They played a crucial role in coordinating various activities, ensuring the smooth functioning of urban economies.

Q. What were the key features of life in the city of Ur, and how did they differ from other contemporary cities like Mohenjodaro?

Answer: Ur’s key features included narrow, winding streets that limited access to wheeled carts, irregular house plots indicating a lack of town planning, and the absence of street drains or sewage systems. Instead, Ur houses had drains and clay pipes in their inner courtyards. Light entered rooms through doorways opening into courtyards, providing privacy. The town had a cemetery for royalty and commoners, with some individuals buried under house floors. Compared to Mohenjodaro, which had a planned drainage system, Ur’s infrastructure was less organized but still effective in managing daily urban life.

Q. How did the economy and society of Mesopotamian cities function with the presence of a ruling elite?

Answer: Mesopotamian cities had a small ruling elite that controlled significant wealth. This elite’s presence is evident from the luxurious items buried with royalty, such as jewellery, gold vessels, and musical instruments. Society was generally composed of nuclear families, with the father as the head. Marriages were arranged with the bride’s parents’ consent and involved the exchange of gifts. Inheritance practices favored sons, who inherited the father’s property. The ruling elite influenced social and economic activities, ensuring efficient resource distribution and contributing to the city’s prosperity.

Q. Where was Mari located?

Answer: Mari was located much further upstream on the river Euphrates.

Q. What goods were commonly traded through Mari?

Answer: Wood, copper, tin, oil, and wine were commonly traded through Mari.

Q. Who built a palace in Mari?

Answer: King Zimrilim built a palace in Mari.

Q. How many rooms did the palace in Mari have?

Answer: The palace in Mari had 260 rooms.

Q. What kind of town was Tepe Gawra?

Answer: Tepe Gawra was an early town in northern Iraq.

Q. What river is Tepe Gawra near?

Answer: Tepe Gawra is near the Tigris river.

Q. Where were the Indus Valley cities located?

Answer: The Indus Valley cities were located in present-day Pakistan.

Q. What were the primary goods traded through Tepe Gawra?

Answer: Lapis lazuli and other exotic goods were traded through Tepe Gawra.

Q. What was a significant feature of Mohenjodaro?

Answer: A significant feature of Mohenjodaro was its well-planned drainage system.

Q. What form of writing was developed in Mesopotamia?

Answer: Pictographic writing was developed in Mesopotamia.

Q. What is the wedge-shaped writing system called?

Answer: The wedge-shaped writing system is called cuneiform.

Q. Who established a library at Nineveh?

Answer: Assyrian king Assurbanipal established a library at Nineveh.

Q. What was the significance of the trading town Mari in ancient times?

Answer: Mari, a trading town in a pastoral zone, was significant for its strategic location on the river Euphrates, where boats carrying goods like grinding stones, wood, wine, and oil would stop. Officers in Mari inspected the cargo and levied a charge of about one-tenth the value of the goods, allowing the town to prosper through trade.

Q. Describe the role of nomadic communities in Mesopotamian society.

Answer: Nomadic communities from the western desert filtered into Mesopotamia’s agricultural heartland, bringing their flocks into towns during the summer. These groups, including herds, harvest laborers, and hired soldiers, sometimes became prosperous and settled down. Some shepherds gained power, establishing kingdoms like the Akkadians, Assyrians, and Arameaneans.

Q. What were the burial practices in Tepe Gawra, and what do they indicate about the society?

Answer: In Tepe Gawra, people were buried in various ways, such as in built tombs, simple pits, or cists. The articles placed with them, ranging from simple items to rich collections, indicate a social hierarchy. Common people were buried simply, while the rich were buried with costly articles, reflecting differences in status, power, and privileges.

Q. How did the Indus Valley cities reflect advanced urban planning?

Answer: The Indus Valley cities, including Harappa and Mohenjodaro, demonstrated advanced urban planning with features like wide streets laid out in a regular plan and a well-planned drainage system. Mohenjodaro, on the banks of the river Indus, was the oldest planned city in the world and the chief center of social activities in the Indus Valley.

Q. Explain the development and significance of the cuneiform writing system.

Answer: The cuneiform writing system, developed in Mesopotamia by 3200 BC, began with pictographic signs and numbers for recording transactions. Over time, it evolved into a system representing sounds of spoken syllables. By 2600 BC, it became cuneiform and was adopted by various cultures, including the Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. This system was essential for record-keeping, legal documentation, and narrating historical events, contributing significantly to the administration and intellectual activities of ancient societies.

Q. How did Mari become a prosperous trading town, and what was its economic significance?

Answer: Mari became a prosperous trading town due to its strategic location on the Euphrates River, which was not on the southern plain with highly productive agriculture but much further upstream. This position allowed it to serve as a crucial stop for boats carrying essential goods such as grinding stones, wood, wine, and oil jars. The town officers played a significant role in its economic prosperity by inspecting the cargo and levying a charge of about one-tenth the value of the goods before allowing the boats to continue downstream. This inspection and taxation system enabled Mari to thrive economically through trade, making it an excellent example of an urban center prospering on trade in various goods.

Q. Discuss the significance of the palace built by King Zimrilim in Mari.

Answer: The palace built by King Zimrilim in Mari held significant importance as it served multiple purposes. It was the residence of the royal family, the hub of administration, and a place of production, particularly of precious metal ornaments. The palace, with its only entrance in the north, featured large open courtyards beautifully paved, where the king likely received foreign dignitaries and his people. Spanning 260 rooms and covering an area of 2.4 hectares, the sprawling structure exemplified the architectural and administrative sophistication of the time. This palace not only showcased the wealth and power of King Zimrilim but also played a crucial role in the political and economic activities of Mari.

Q. What insights do the burial practices in Tepe Gawra provide about the social structure of the community?

Answer: The burial practices in Tepe Gawra offer significant insights into the social structure of the community. The variations in the methods of burial, such as built tombs, simple pits, vessels, pits with small walls, mud plaster-lined pits, and cists, indicate a hierarchical society. The articles placed in the graves, ranging from simple pots or necklaces to rich collections of gold, exotic beads, and lapis lazuli, further reflect the differences in wealth and status among the individuals. Common people were typically buried in simpler pits or mudbricks, while the rich were interred with costly articles, symbolizing their higher status and privileges. These practices highlight the social stratification and the evolution of status, power, and privileges within the community.

Q. Describe the urban planning and infrastructure of Mohenjodaro in the Indus Valley.

Answer: Mohenjodaro, one of the prominent cities in the Indus Valley, exhibited remarkable urban planning and infrastructure. Situated on the banks of the river Indus in the Larkana district of Sindh, Pakistan, it was the oldest planned city in the world. The city featured wide streets laid out in a regular plan, similar to modern cities, and a well-planned drainage system, which was a striking feature. The layout and design of the city indicate a high level of planning and organization. Additionally, the city served as the chief center of social activities for the Indus Valley people. The presence of such advanced urban infrastructure reflects the sophistication and ingenuity of the civilization that inhabited Mohenjodaro.

Q. How did the development of writing influence the growth of Mesopotamian society?

Answer: The development of writing had a profound influence on the growth of Mesopotamian society. Between 4000 BC and 3000 BC, the steady progress in the art of writing led to the creation of a pictographic form of writing in Mesopotamia. The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BC, contained picture-like signs and numbers used for keeping records of transactions. This system evolved into cuneiform writing by 2600 BC, representing spoken syllables and later individual letters. Writing became crucial for various administrative functions, including record-keeping, legal documentation, and narrating historical events. The ability to document transactions, laws, and deeds of kings enabled better governance and facilitated intellectual and cultural development. Writing also played a key role in preserving knowledge and traditions, contributing to the continuity and advancement of Mesopotamian society.

Q. Analyze the economic and social impact of Mari’s trading activities on its development as an urban center.

Answer: Mari’s trading activities had a substantial economic and social impact on its development as an urban center. Located upstream on the Euphrates River, Mari’s strategic position enabled it to become a crucial stop for boats carrying various goods such as grinding stones, wood, wine, and oil jars. The town’s officers inspected these cargos and levied a charge of about one-tenth the value of the goods before allowing the boats to continue downstream. This taxation system provided Mari with a steady source of revenue, contributing to its economic prosperity.

The influx of goods and traders not only boosted Mari’s economy but also facilitated cultural exchanges and interactions with other regions. The wealth generated from trade allowed the city to develop infrastructure, including the construction of King Zimrilim’s palace, which served as a residence, administrative hub, and production center for precious metal ornaments.

Socially, the prosperity attracted various groups, including Mesopotamian nomadic communities, who brought their flocks into the town during the summer. These groups, comprising herds, harvest laborers, and hired soldiers, sometimes settled down and integrated into the urban population. Some even established their own kingdoms, contributing to the region’s political landscape.

Q. Discuss the role of writing in the administration and cultural development of Mesopotamian cities.

Answer: Writing played a pivotal role in the administration and cultural development of Mesopotamian cities. The development of pictographic writing around 3200 BC marked the beginning of a sophisticated system of record-keeping essential for urban administration. The ability to document transactions, legal matters, and historical events facilitated efficient governance and the management of complex city affairs.

In administration, writing was used to keep records of goods brought into or distributed from temples, manage land transfers, and document the deeds of kings. The use of cuneiform writing, which evolved by 2600 BC, allowed for precise and detailed record-keeping, ensuring that administrative tasks were carried out effectively.

Culturally, writing contributed to the preservation and transmission of knowledge. Scribes, who formed an important class in society, were responsible for creating and maintaining written records, including dictionaries, legal documents, and literary works. The development of literature, facilitated by writing, enriched the cultural life of Mesopotamian cities. Epic poems, hymns, and historical accounts were documented, providing insights into the society’s values, beliefs, and achievements.

The legacy of writing extended beyond administration and literature. It enabled the preservation of scientific knowledge, such as mathematical and astronomical data, which laid the foundation for future advancements. The ability to record and disseminate information across generations ensured that the intellectual and cultural achievements of Mesopotamian cities were not lost to time.

53. Examine the significance of the development of writing in Mesopotamia and its influence on future civilizations.

Answer: The development of writing in Mesopotamia was a groundbreaking achievement with far-reaching significance, influencing future civilizations in numerous ways. The Mesopotamians developed a pictographic form of writing around 3200 BC, which evolved into the cuneiform script by 2600 BC. This system of writing enabled the recording of transactions, legal matters, historical events, and literary works, laying the foundation for advanced administration and cultural development.

One of the primary impacts of writing was on administration. The ability to document transactions, manage land transfers, and keep detailed records allowed for efficient governance of the complex urban centers. Writing also facilitated the creation of legal codes and the documentation of royal decrees, ensuring that laws and policies were communicated clearly and consistently.

Culturally, the development of writing enriched Mesopotamian society by preserving and transmitting knowledge. Literature flourished with the documentation of epic poems, hymns, and historical narratives. The preservation of scientific knowledge, including mathematical and astronomical data, contributed to future advancements in these fields. The legacy of writing extended beyond Mesopotamia, influencing subsequent civilizations such as the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans.

The Mesopotamians’ contributions to time reckoning and mathematics, including the division of the year into 12 months, the day into 24 hours, and the hour into 60 minutes, were transmitted to later cultures and remain in use today. The ability to record and disseminate knowledge across generations ensured that the intellectual and cultural achievements of Mesopotamia were not lost to time.

Extra/additional MCQs

1. From which language does the English word “city” originate?

A. Greek
B. Latin
C. Chinese
D. Egyptian

Answer: B. Latin

2. What was the primary reason for the establishment of early villages?

A. Mutual protection
B. Trade
C. Education
D. Religion

Answer: A. Mutual protection

3. Which river civilisation is not mentioned as a root of early cities in the passage?

A. Mesopotamia
B. Egypt
C. China
D. Greece

Answer: D. Greece

4. During which centuries did European urban centres almost disappear due to the hazards of safe trading?

A. 1st to 5th centuries
B. 2nd to 6th centuries
C. 5th to 9th centuries
D. 8th to 12th centuries

Answer: C. 5th to 9th centuries

5. What factor primarily attracts people to cities according to the passage?

A. Religion
B. Education
C. Economic prosperity
D. Climate

Answer: C. Economic prosperity

6. Which age is mentioned as the time when men were wanderers before settling down in villages?

A. Neolithic Age
B. Bronze Age
C. Paleolithic Age
D. Iron Age

Answer: C. Paleolithic Age

7. When did the first phase in the growth of cities begin?

A. 2,000 years ago
B. 3,000 years ago
C. 5,000 to 6,000 years ago
D. 10,000 years ago

Answer: C. 5,000 to 6,000 years ago

8. What was a common feature of early villages as they began to grow?

A. Schools and universities
B. Close proximity of huts
C. Large palaces
D. Factories

Answer: B. Close proximity of huts

9. What contributed to the ruin of European cities between the 5th and 9th centuries AD?

A. Earthquakes
B. Barbarian and Muslim invasions
C. Famine
D. Civil wars

Answer: B. Barbarian and Muslim invasions

10. What is considered the start of civilisation according to the passage?

A. Building of roads
B. Beginning of writing
C. Living in towns
D. Invention of the wheel

Answer: C. Living in towns

11. Where did city life begin according to archaeologists?

A. Egypt
B. China
C. Mesopotamia
D. Greece

Answer: C. Mesopotamia

12. What does the Greek word “meso” mean?

A. River
B. Middle
C. Land
D. City

Answer: B. Middle

13. By what year were urban settlements, monumental architecture, and writing in existence in Mesopotamia?

A. 4,000 BC
B. 3,500 BC
C. 3,000 BC
D. 2,500 BC

Answer: B. 3,500 BC

14. How many large cities were there in Sumeria (Mesopotamia) surrounded by smaller towns and villages?

A. 10 to 15
B. 15 to 20
C. 20 to 25
D. 25 to 30

Answer: B. 15 to 20

15. What was the primary mode of transportation in ancient Mesopotamia?

A. Roads
B. Air routes
C. Water routes
D. Railways

Answer: C. Water routes

16. From what year did settlements in southern Mesopotamia begin to develop?

A. 6,000 BC
B. 5,000 BC
C. 4,000 BC
D. 3,000 BC

Answer: B. 5,000 BC

17. What were the residences of gods such as the moon god of Ur or Inanna in Mesopotamia?

A. Palaces
B. Temples
C. Houses
D. Fortresses

Answer: B. Temples

18. Which of the following activities was NOT typically associated with temples in early Mesopotamia?

A. Record keeping
B. Grain distribution
C. Military training
D. Worship

Answer: C. Military training

19. What city in Mesopotamia grew to 250 hectares and was one of the earliest temple towns?

A. Amri
B. Tape Gawra
C. Kerkuk
D. Uruk

Answer: D. Uruk

20. What was a significant role of the victorious chiefs in early Mesopotamian society?

A. Building roads
B. Creating new religions
C. Distributing loot and employing prisoners
D. Inventing writing

Answer: C. Distributing loot and employing prisoners

21. What was buried with some kings and queens at Ur indicating the wealth of the ruling elite?

A. Weapons
B. Jewelry, gold vessels, musical instruments
C. Books and manuscripts
D. Agricultural tools

Answer: B. Jewelry, gold vessels, musical instruments

22. In Mesopotamian society, who was typically the head of the family?

A. The mother
B. The eldest son
C. The father
D. The eldest daughter

Answer: C. The father

23. What was exchanged during Mesopotamian marriages?

A. Livestock
B. Property deeds
C. Gifts from both parties
D. Slaves

Answer: C. Gifts from both parties

24. When was the city of Ur excavated?

A. 1920s
B. 1830s
C. 1950s
D. 1890s

Answer: B. 1830s

25. What feature indicates that Ur had no system of town planning?

A. Wide straight streets
B. Narrow winding streets
C. Gridded street layout
D. Elevated platforms

Answer: B. Narrow winding streets

26. What was absent in Ur that was present in contemporary Mohenjodaro?

A. Temples
B. Marketplaces
C. Street drains and sewage systems
D. Residential houses

Answer: C. Street drains and sewage systems

27. How did light typically enter rooms in the houses of Ur?

A. Through windows
B. Through doorways opening into courtyards
C. Through skylights
D. Through glass panes

Answer: B. Through doorways opening into courtyards

28. What did a raised threshold symbolize in the superstitions recorded on omen tablets at Ur?

A. Bad luck
B. Wealth
C. Health
D. Long life

Answer: B. Wealth

29. Where were some individuals found buried in the city of Ur?

A. In public cemeteries only
B. Under the floors of ordinary houses
C. Inside the temples
D. In the city center

Answer: B. Under the floors of ordinary houses

30. What was considered unlucky for a main wooden door in Ur houses?

A. If it opened inwards
B. If it was painted red
C. If it opened outwards
D. If it was made of oak

Answer: C. If it opened outwards

31. What was a significant feature of Uruk around 3,000 BC?

A. Defensive walls
B. Large canals
C. Extensive gardens
D. Palaces

Answer: A. Defensive walls

32. How many hectares did Uruk extend to by about 2800 BC?

A. 150 hectares
B. 250 hectares
C. 300 hectares
D. 400 hectares

Answer: D. 400 hectares

33. What type of work were captives of war and other people required to do in Uruk?

A. Farming
B. Building temples and public utility work
C. Fishing
D. Teaching

Answer: B. Building temples and public utility work

34. When did Mari flourish as a trading town in a pastoral zone?

A. 1,000 BC
B. 2,000 BC
C. 3,000 BC
D. 4,000 BC

Answer: B. 2,000 BC

35. What goods did boats carry that would stop at Mari on their way to southern Mesopotamian cities?

A. Livestock
B. Gold and silver
C. Grinding stones, wood, wine, and oil jars
D. Weapons

Answer: C. Grinding stones, wood, wine, and oil jars

36. What was the function of the officers in the town of Mari?

A. Collect taxes
B. Inspect cargo and levy charges
C. Build roads
D. Train soldiers

Answer: B. Inspect cargo and levy charges

37. What did the kings of Mari build in the city for the god Dagan?

A. A palace
B. A fortress
C. A temple
D. A marketplace

Answer: C. A temple

38. How many rooms did King Zimrilim’s palace in Mari have?

A. 100
B. 150
C. 200
D. 260

Answer: D. 260

39. When was Tepe Gawra excavated by archaeologists?

A. 1910-1915
B. 1920-1925
C. 1932-1938
D. 1945-1950

Answer: C. 1932-1938

40. What material were the built tombs at Tepe Gawra made of?

A. Stone
B. Wood
C. Libu or mudbrick
D. Marble

Answer: C. Libu or mudbrick

41. What city was built by King Nasirbal of Assyria as a military defence line?

A. Uruk
B. Tepe Gawra
C. Kerkuk City
D. Harappa

Answer: C. Kerkuk City

42. Which city is known as the oldest planned city in the world?

A. Ur
B. Mari
C. Mohenjodaro
D. Tepe Gawra

Answer: C. Mohenjodaro

43. On which river was the city of Harappa situated?

A. Indus
B. Tigris
C. Euphrates
D. Ravi

Answer: D. Ravi

44. What was a striking feature of the town of Mohenjodaro?

A. Extensive gardens
B. Large palaces
C. Well planned drainage system
D. Fortified walls

Answer: C. Well planned drainage system

45. Which city had houses that were small in size but similar in other respects to those of Mohenjodaro?

A. Uruk
B. Tepe Gawra
C. Harappa
D. Kerkuk City

Answer: C. Harappa

46. What was essential for the birth of a civilization according to the passage?

A. Advanced agriculture
B. System of writing
C. Military strength
D. Monumental architecture

Answer: B. System of writing

47. When was there steady progress in the art of writing?

A. 5,000 BC to 4,000 BC
B. 4,000 BC to 3,000 BC
C. 3,000 BC to 2,000 BC
D. 2,000 BC to 1,000 BC

Answer: B. 4,000 BC to 3,000 BC

48. What was the first form of writing entirely pictographic?

A. Hieroglyphics
B. Alphabetical writing
C. Pictographs
D. Cuneiform

Answer: C. Pictographs

49. Which civilization reached the stage of having an alphabet of twenty-four letters but also clung to picture signs?

A. Sumerians
B. Egyptians
C. Akkadians
D. Babylonians

Answer: B. Egyptians

50. Who wrote the history of his war in Gaul?

A. Julius Caesar
B. Theodore Roosevelt
C. Winston Churchill
D. Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru

Answer: A. Julius Caesar

51. What was the primary material used for writing in Mesopotamia?

A. Papyrus
B. Stone tablets
C. Soft clay tablets
D. Metal sheets

Answer: C. Soft clay tablets

52. What does the term ‘cuneiform’ refer to?

A. Picture writing
B. Wedge-shaped writing
C. Alphabetical writing
D. Hieroglyphics

Answer: B. Wedge-shaped writing

53. Which language was represented using cuneiform writing by 2,600 BC?

A. Akkadian
B. Sumerian
C. Babylonian
D. Assyrian

Answer: B. Sumerian

54. For how long did cuneiform writing in the Akkadian language continue to be used?

A. 500 years
B. 1,000 years
C. 1,500 years
D. 2,000 years

Answer: D. 2,000 years

55. What significant contribution did Mesopotamia make to the world, especially in time reckoning and mathematics?

A. Decimal system
B. Calendar of 12 months and division of time
C. Invention of the zero
D. Binary number system

Answer: B. Calendar of 12 months and division of time

56. Which king established a library at Nineveh?

A. Hammurabi
B. Nebuchadnezzar
C. Assurbanipal
D. Gilgamesh

Answer: C. Assurbanipal

57. What kind of writing system did the Egyptians develop?

A. Completely alphabetical
B. Pictographic with some alphabetic elements
C. Purely syllabic
D. None of the above

Answer: B. Pictographic with some alphabetic elements

58. Which U.S. President wrote “Winning of the West”?

A. George Washington
B. Abraham Lincoln
C. Theodore Roosevelt
D. Franklin D. Roosevelt

Answer: C. Theodore Roosevelt

59. How did the Mesopotamians divide the year?

A. Into 10 months
B. According to the solar calendar
C. Into 12 months according to the moon’s revolution
D. Based on the agricultural cycles

Answer: C. Into 12 months according to the moon’s revolution

60. What was the importance of schools in Mesopotamian urban institutions?

A. Teaching agricultural techniques
B. Training soldiers
C. Reading and copying earlier written tablets
D. Building monuments

Answer: C. Reading and copying earlier written tablets