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Europe in the Nineteenth Century: WBBSE Class 9 History (English Medium) solutions
Get textual answers, explanations, solutions, notes, extras, MCQs, PDF of Chapter 3 Europe in the Nineteenth Century: Conflict of Monarchical and Nationalist Ideas, WBBSE Class 9 History (English medium). However, the educational materials should only be used for reference, and students are encouraged to make necessary changes.
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Summary
In the 1800s, Europe saw big changes. The idea of a nation-state grew. A nation-state forms when people in one area, speaking the same language, unite under one government. This feeling of unity and loyalty to one’s nation is called nationalism. These ideas became powerful after the French Revolution and Napoleon’s wars. Early nation-states like England and France appeared as feudal lords lost power, the Church supported kings, and the middle class offered financial help.
Napoleon Bonaparte spread French ideas across Europe. While building his empire, his actions unintentionally sparked nationalism in invaded lands. People felt stronger unity against the French. After Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, European leaders met at the Congress of Vienna. They wanted to return to old ways, putting kings back on thrones based on ‘legitimacy’, the idea that ruling families had a right to rule. They ignored nationalist feelings. This created tension between old monarchies and new nationalist ideas. Austria’s Metternich created a system to suppress these new ideas.
Discontent led to revolts. In 1830, the July Revolution in France removed King Charles X. This inspired others. Belgium became independent. Poland revolted but was crushed. Uprisings also occurred in Italy and Germany. In 1848, the February Revolution in France overthrew the king and created the Second French Republic. This wave of revolution spread, weakening the Metternich System. It fueled desires for unity in Germany and Italy and led to changes in Hungary.
Italy experienced the Risorgimento, meaning ‘resurgence’, a movement for unity. Leaders like Mazzini inspired people. Count Cavour, leading Piedmont, used diplomacy and war, getting French help against Austria. Garibaldi led revolts in the south. By 1870, Italy became a united nation under King Victor Emmanuel. Germany was also divided. Otto von Bismarck of Prussia believed unity required ‘blood and iron’, meaning military strength and war, not just talk. He led Prussia through wars against Denmark, Austria, and France, partly sparked by the altered Ems Telegram message. In 1871, Germany was unified under Prussia. An earlier customs union, Zollverein, had helped economic ties.
The Ottoman Empire grew weak and was called the ‘sick man of Europe’, meaning it was declining and might fall apart. Christian peoples in the Balkans, like Greeks, Serbs, Romanians, and Bulgars, desired independence. Russia wanted more influence, leading to conflicts known as the ‘Eastern Question’. The Crimean War involved Russia against the Ottomans, Britain, and France. Later, Balkan nations gained more freedom or unity. In Russia, Tsar Alexander II saw reforms were needed after the Crimean War. He freed the serfs in 1861, ending peasant bondage, though the process had difficulties.
Textual Questions, Answers (Oriental)
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following was fruitful for the evolution of nationalism in Europe ?
(a) Fall of Bastille
(b) National Convention
(c) The Reign of Terror
(d) The French Revolution
Answer: (d) The French Revolution
2. Indicate which of the following the four Powers that brought about the fall of Napoleon:
(a) Austria, Russia, England and Turkey
(b) Russia, Austria, England and France
(c) Austria, Prussia, USA and England
(d) Austria, Russia, Prussia and England
Answer: (d) Austria, Russia, Prussia and England
3. After which of the following France was declared a ‘secular state’?
(a) French Revolution of 1789
(b) February Revolution of 1848
(c) July Revolution of 1830
(d) None of the above
Answer: (c) July Revolution of 1830
4. Of the following which country came to be called the ‘sick man of Europe’?
(a) France
(b) England
(c) Turkey
(d) Prussia
Answer: (c) Turkey
Very-short Answer Type Questions
1. Name the first two nation-states of Europe.
Answer: The first two nation-states under strong monarchy were England and France.
2. When was Napoleon and his Empire overthrown?
Answer: Napoleon and his Empire were overthrown in 1815.
3. Application of which principle restored the Bourbon monarchy in France?
Answer: The principle under which the Bourbon monarchy was restored in France was ‘Legitimacy’.
5. When did the February Revolution in France take place?
Answer: The February Revolution in France occurred after the government attempted to prevent a banquet scheduled to be held on 22 February 1848, which signalled the outbreak of rioting.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Mention a factor that helped the emergence of the nation-states in Europe.
Answer: With the decay of feudalism towards the end of the middle ages, the feudal lords were no longer in a position to oppose the power of the kings. This helped make possible the emergence of the nation-states.
2. What is meant by the term Risorgimento?
Answer: The Italian term Risorgimento literally means ‘resurgence’ or ‘rebirth’. In respect to Italy, it meant the movement which led to the formation of a united Italy.
3. Who was Bismarck?
Answer: Otto von Bismarck came from the German state of Prussia and assumed the office of the Chancellor (or Prime Minister) of Prussia. He was a nationalist to the core of his heart. He hated Austria and wanted to see Germany united under Prussian leadership. Bismarck was a strong man, not an idealist.
4. Why is Florence Nightingale remembered?
Answer: Florence Nightingale is remembered because during the Crimean War, she led a group of nurses to the war front where she set up clean hospitals. For the first time, Britain’s wounded soldiers received good medical care. As a nurse, Nightingale is considered one of the founders of modern nursing.
Long Answer Type Questions-I
1. What were the aspirations of the peoples of Europe after 1815 ?
Answer: After 1815, the peoples of Europe were attracted to the ideas of democracy and nationalism, influenced by the French Revolution and Napoleon. However, neither nationalism nor democracy gained anything from the arrangements made in the Vienna Congress, landing the people in a world of repressive autocrats. In the years following 1815, the aspirations of the people were mainly twofold: nationalist and democratic. For people who were yet to achieve unity, popular aspirations turned towards unity or independence, as seen in Germany and Italy. In countries where national unity and independence had already been achieved, like France, Spain, Russia, and England, the people’s struggles were directed towards the achievement of democratic principles and institutions.
2. What was the impact of the February Revolution of 1848 in Europe?
Answer: The Revolution of 1848 did not go in vain. Its importance lay in the fact that it finally was successful in overthrowing the reactionary Metternich System, which had been suppressing nationalist attempts across Europe since 1815. The Revolution proved that it was impossible to kill ideas, allowing the forces of liberalism and nationalism released by the French Revolution to work their way through the conservative diplomatic structures. In Germany and Italy, the Revolution of 1848 deepened nationalist sentiments for union. In Germany, liberals summoned a national assembly at Frankfurt, elected on the basis of adult suffrage, and the founding of the Frankfurt Parliament was the first important step towards German unification. The nationalist struggle in Italy revealed that Piedmont-Sardinia should be the centre for the Italian unification movement, awakening national consciousness in dissected Italy. In Hungary, liberals effected a revolution, freed the press, abolished vestiges of feudalism, established a liberal government, and Hungary emerged as a free national state.
3. What were the contributions of the Young Italy movement ?
Answer: Although the Young Italy’s uprising of 1848 showed the unpractical nature of Mazzini’s programme, the movement expressed the nationalist aspirations of the Italian people. It helped the frustrated people rise from a slough of despair. The disunited people of Italy realized that their independence was not merely an elusive dream. Furthermore, a mental strength was created among the Italians that was so necessary for building a new united Italy.
4. Write about the spurt of nationalism in Serbia.
Answer: Serbia had lost its independence long ago and remained under Turkish rule until the beginning of the nineteenth century. Although King Alexander granted a liberal constitution in 1889, he failed to win popular support, and political unrest continued. In 1903, rebels placed Peter on the throne and restored the 1889 constitution. Under Peter, Serbians concentrated on a nationalistic policy aimed at uniting all Serbs of the Balkans into one large state. However, this dream of a larger Serbia could not be realized without conflict with Austria-Hungary. Consequently, the movement turned revolutionary, directed against the integrity of Austria-Hungary, becoming the most dangerous ‘irredentist’ problem in Europe, advocating for the annexation of territories administered by another state based on common ethnicity.
Long Answer Type Questions-II
1. Write about the impact of the July Revolution of 1830 in Europe.
Answer: The July Revolution had its echoes heard in other parts of Europe. Immediately after the revolt broke out in Paris, the Belgians who were discontented with the Dutch rule felt that they should now throw it off. Demonstration broke out in Brussels that was followed by revolts in provincial towns. The Belgians declared their independence in 1831. The Belgian independence was soon recognized by France and Britain. The successful revolt of the Belgians was a striking victory of nationalism and the first breach of the settlement made at the Vienna Congress.
The other country soon to be affected by the July Revolution was Poland. The country had been under the misrule of Russia for a long time. The Poles resorted to insurrection in 1831. The revolt was led by university students and some secret societies. The rebels even set up a provisional government. The Polish revolt, however, was severely crushed by the ruling Tsar Nicholas I.
In Italy too revolution broke out and the impetus was the July Revolution in France. The Italian liberals cherished the idea that France would support Italian revolution. Risings largely with constitutional aims took place in Parma, Modena and the Papal States. But the revolts were savagely suppressed.
The July Revolution in Paris sparked off demonstrations and riots in several German states. The rebels’ demands were for a constitution or for liberalization where there had already been a constitution. But the agitations achieved practically nothing.
In the wake of the July Revolution the people of Spain and Portugal began agitation for introducing democratic principles. Under pressure of the movement the rulers were compelled to introduce liberal administrative reforms.
In England the example of the July Revolution made the conservative rulers realize that it was no more possible to resist the democratic influence. The farsightedness of the rulers of England in this respect was confirmed when extensive reform measures were introduced (Reform Bill) in 1832.
2. Write how Italy emerged as a nation-state.
Answer: Conquest of the mainland of Italy, a divided country, by Napoleon had far-reaching consequences. Napoleonic conquest gave some encouragement to Italian nationalism. At the Vienna Congress pre-Napoleonic regime was restored in Italy. The restoration meant widespread discontent. It was this discontent that led to a movement for the unification of Italy, known as the Risorgimento.
The first shot in the Italian movement for unity and liberty was fired by the Carbonaries, Italian revolutionaries who worked under a secret society. But their risings were ruthlessly suppressed by Austrian troops. Mazzini led the second stage of the movement. In 1831, Mazzini founded a youth organization called the Young Italy. The programme of the Young Italy was very clear and emphatic: Austria was a stumbling block and was to be pushed out of Italy, a war with Austria was inevitable, no foreign help was necessary, and a unified Italy must have a republican form of government. In 1848, the Young Italy organized mass uprising, but the movement fizzled out for lack of organization and co-ordination. Yet the movement expressed the nationalist aspirations, helped the frustrated people rise from despair, made the disunited people realize independence was not an elusive dream, and created mental strength necessary for building a new united Italy.
It was Count Cavour who furthered the unification of Italy. He projected Piedmont in the leadership of the unification. Cavour realized that unity and independence could not be attained without foreign help and cultivated friendship with France, Prussia and Britain. In 1859 France helped Piedmont in a war against Austria, resulting in the conquest of Lombardy. Meanwhile four other Italian states revolted against their rulers to ally themselves with Piedmont. In 1860 the Kingdom of Two Sicilies (Sicily and Naples) revolted under the leadership of Garibaldi. In the same year Cavour invaded the Papal States, all of which, except Rome, fell to the Piedmontese forces. Cavour then persuaded Garibaldi to permit the unification of the Two Sicilies. Thus almost all the Italian peninsula was united. King Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed the King of Italy in 1861. The final additions of Venetia in 1866 and Rome in 1870 completed the formation of Italy as a nation-state.
3. Write in brief about Balkan nationalism.
Answer: The European part of the Ottoman Empire comprised the Balkans in the South-East Europe, a hilly region between the Aegean Sea and the Danube. In this region lived the Greeks, Romanians, Bulgars, Serbs, Albanians and others who were Christians. These people sensing the weakness of the Ottoman Empire were stirred by an urge for liberation. Russia desired to push her frontiers into the Ottoman Empire on the plea of protecting the interests of the Balkan nationalities, which went against the interests of other European powers like England, France, Austria and others, leading to the ‘Eastern Question’. The ‘Question’ centred round the hopes and aspirations of the Christian nationalities of the Balkans and the imperialist designs of Russia.
The main developments after the Crimean War concerned the small Balkan nationalities.
In Greece, after King Otto abdicated in 1862, the new King George I consented to a parliamentary government. The prosperity of the Greeks encouraged their nationalist desires for annexation of Greeks in Crete, Salonica and the Aegean Islands. With the help of Serbia and Bulgaria in the Balkan War (1912-1913), the Greeks received the desired territories and became a unified nation. Greek nationalism had seen a revival since the French Revolution and Napoleon, with pioneers like Adamantios Korais and Constantine Rhigas founding secret societies. In 1814, the Hetairia Philike society was founded in Odessa, led by Prince Alexander Ypsilanti, who organized a national Greek revolt in Rumania, though he was confined by Turkish troops.
Serbia had remained under Turkish rule until the beginning of the nineteenth century. Though King Alexander granted a liberal constitution in 1889, political unrest continued. Rebels in 1903 placed Peter on the throne and restored the 1889 constitution. Under Peter, Serbians concentrated on a nationalistic policy to bring all Serbs of the Balkans into one large state. This dream required conflict with Austria-Hungary, turning the movement revolutionary and directed against Austria-Hungary’s integrity, becoming a dangerous ‘irredentist’ problem.
Moldavia and Wallachia, two districts at the mouth of the Danube, virtually became independent at the end of the Crimean War. The people had always shown a strong national spirit. In 1856, the powers recognized their independence with two separate assemblies, but this was overcome by the assemblies each choosing the same prince. Thus the two provinces united to form the new state of Romania in 1861 (though the name was given in 1866).
The independence of Montenegro, under a separate prince, was recognized in 1878. It prospered under Prince Nicholas, advancing political democracy with a constitution adopted in 1905 providing for a parliament elected by universal manhood suffrage.
Oppressions by Turkish officials provoked peasants in Herzegovina to rise in insurrection in 1875, joined by fellow Slavs of Bosnia. The next year, the people of Bulgaria rebelled against Turkish officials, suffering brutal torture and mass killings which thrilled Europe. Serbia and Montenegro declared war against Turkey in 1876. The Balkan issues were finally settled at the Berlin Congress in 1878.
4. Write about Tsar Alexander II as a reformer.
Answer: Alexander II (1855-1881) ascended his father’s (Nicholas I) throne while Russia was fighting the Crimean War. Realizing the war had seriously weakened Russia and that the government must be reformed, Alexander made many reforms. Though no believer in democratic methods, he wanted to introduce reforms keeping intact his royal rights, trying to reduce the impact of the autocratic rule. First of all, press censorship was withdrawn. Unjust laws prohibiting foreign travel of the subjects were rescinded. Next he released the Decembrists many of whom were imprisoned or exiled by his father. Alexander kept a watchful eye on the economic development of the country. As a result of his efforts education and the communication system of the country improved vastly. His efforts contributed significantly to the expansion of trade and commerce of Russia.
All the reforms of Alexander were not successful. But the laws he enacted for the emancipation of the serfs was his most remarkable social reform. The medieval system of serfdom existed nowhere in Europe except Russia in the mid-nineteenth century, diminishing her dignity. After discussions, Alexander II signed the Emancipation Statute (March 1861), bringing an end to serfdom in Russia. Because of this, Tsar Alexander II is known in history as the Tsar Liberator.
The Emancipation Statute stipulated that Russian serfs were now free from bondage to feudal lords. A substantial section of the nobility’s land was distributed amongst the peasantry on a collective basis through village communes (mir or obshchina). The Tsarist government advanced compensation money to landowners on behalf of peasants, to be realized from them in forty-nine installments collected by the mirs.
Generally speaking, the emancipation yielded good results: the price of land increased considerably, collection of land-revenue increased improving government finances, and agricultural produce showed an upward swing enhancing trade volume. Though emancipation improved the general condition of the peasantry, its less happy results were more important with far-reaching consequences. The Statute failed to improve the condition of the peasants, was bulky and complex, and the provision for advances in installments was disadvantageous. It came as a bitter disappointment, as the hopes raised could hardly be fulfilled within the Tsarist autocracy framework. Ultimately, the Russian people could get their hopes and aspirations fulfilled only through the fall of the Tsardom.
Extras
Additional MCQs
1. What term describes a political entity where people share language and territory under one king?
A. Nation-state
B. Confederation
C. Empire
D. Republic
Answer: A. Nation-state
2. Which development in the late Middle Ages weakened feudal lords and enabled stronger monarchies?
A. Rise of guilds
B. Decay of feudalism
C. Crusades
D. Renaissance
Answer: B. Decay of feudalism
3. Which institution’s support strengthened monarchs and helped form nation-states?
A. Universities
B. Christian church
C. Merchant guilds
D. Peasant communes
Answer: B. Christian church
4. Which social group’s financial backing made kings more powerful during state formation?
A. Peasants
B. Clergy
C. Middle class
D. Nobility
Answer: C. Middle class
5. Which were the first two nation-states under strong monarchies?
A. Spain and Portugal
B. England and France
C. Germany and Italy
D. Austria and Russia
Answer: B. England and France
6. Nationalism as a modern force originated from which events?
A. Industrial Revolution
B. French Revolution and Napoleonic wars
C. Thirty Years’ War
D. Reformation
Answer: B. French Revolution and Napoleonic wars
7. What is the term for the sense of unity among people sharing history and culture?
A. Patriotism
B. Globalism
C. Nationalism
D. Liberalism
Answer: C. Nationalism
8. Which headgear became a symbol of French revolutionary nationalism?
A. Tricorne
B. Liberty cap
C. Bicorne
D. Phrygian cap
Answer: B. Liberty cap
9. What hymn, later national anthem of France, emerged during the Revolution?
A. La Cucaracha
B. Marseillaise
C. Ode to Joy
D. Chant du Départ
Answer: B. Marseillaise
10. Which leader’s conquests unintentionally inspired nationalist feelings across Europe?
A. Louis XIV
B. Napoleon Bonaparte
C. Charles V
D. Frederick the Great
Answer: B. Napoleon Bonaparte
11. In which city did coalition forces defeat Napoleon at the Battle of the Nations?
A. Leipzig
B. Waterloo
C. Paris
D. Dresden
Answer: A. Leipzig
12. In which year was Napoleon first forced to abdicate?
A. 1813
B. 1814
C. 1815
D. 1816
Answer: B. 1814
13. To which island was Napoleon exiled after his 1814 abdication?
A. Corsica
B. Elba
C. Sardinia
D. Malta
Answer: B. Elba
14. In which battle of 1815 was Napoleon decisively defeated?
A. Leipzig
B. Trafalgar
C. Waterloo
D. Austerlitz
Answer: C. Waterloo
15. Which general led the allied forces that defeated Napoleon at Waterloo?
A. Marshal Ney
B. Duke of Wellington
C. Prince Schwarzenberg
D. General Blücher
Answer: B. Duke of Wellington
16. Which four powers formed the coalition that overthrew Napoleon?
A. Austria, Russia, Prussia and Britain
B. Austria, France, Spain and Britain
C. Russia, Prussia, Spain and Portugal
D. Britain, Sweden, Denmark and Russia
Answer: A. Austria, Russia, Prussia and Britain
17. What principle justified restoration of pre-revolution monarchies at Vienna?
A. Balance of power
B. Legitimacy
C. National self-determination
D. Liberalism
Answer: B. Legitimacy
18. Which dynasty was restored in France by the Congress of Vienna?
A. Habsburg
B. Bourbon
C. Bonaparte
D. Stuart
Answer: B. Bourbon
19. Which house was reinstated in Holland at the Vienna settlement?
A. Hohenzollern
B. Orange
C. Savoy
D. Romanov
Answer: B. Orange
20. Who was the Austrian chancellor famous for opposing liberalism and nationalism?
A. Metternich
B. Bismarck
C. Pitt
D. Cavour
Answer: A. Metternich
21. What alliance formed the basis of Metternich’s ‘police system’?
A. Triple Alliance
B. Quadruple Alliance
C. Holy Alliance
D. League of Nations
Answer: B. Quadruple Alliance
22. In which year did the revolt known as the July Revolution occur in France?
A. 1824
B. 1830
C. 1832
D. 1848
Answer: B. 1830
23. Which king’s reactionary measures sparked the July Revolution?
A. Louis XVI
B. Louis XVIII
C. Charles X
D. Louis Philippe
Answer: C. Charles X
24. Which ordinance restricted the freedom of the press in July 1830?
A. Milan Decree
B. July Ordinance
C. Edict of Nantes
D. Corn Laws
Answer: B. July Ordinance
25. Who became king of France after Charles X’s abdication?
A. Louis Philippe
B. Napoleon II
C. Charles XI
D. Louis XVI
Answer: A. Louis Philippe
26. Which country declared independence in 1831 following the French revolt?
A. Poland
B. Belgium
C. Italy
D. Greece
Answer: B. Belgium
27. Which 1831 Polish uprising was crushed by Tsar Nicholas I?
A. Kościuszko Uprising
B. January Uprising
C. November Uprising
D. Polish revolt of 1831
Answer: D. Polish revolt of 1831
28. Which Italian states revolted in 1830 against their rulers?
A. Milan and Venice
B. Parma and Modena
C. Tuscany and Sicily
D. Piedmont and Sardinia
Answer: B. Parma and Modena
29. Which British reform act followed the July Revolution’s influence?
A. Reform Bill of 1832
B. Factory Act
C. Corn Law Repeal
D. Municipal Corporations Act
Answer: A. Reform Bill of 1832
30. What name was given to Louis Philippe’s regime established in July 1830?
A. Bourbon Monarchy
B. July Monarchy
C. Second Republic
D. Constitutional Empire
Answer: B. July Monarchy
31. In which year did the February Revolution in France take place?
A. 1830
B. 1848
C. 1856
D. 1870
Answer: B. 1848
32. What method did opponents of Louis Philippe use to express political views under censorship?
A. Pamphlets
B. Public debates
C. Banquets
D. Secret ballots
Answer: C. Banquets
33. On which date was the Paris banquet scheduled that triggered the 1848 revolt?
A. January 22
B. February 22
C. March 22
D. April 22
Answer: B. February 22
34. What form of government was proclaimed in France after February 1848?
A. Monarchy
B. Republic
C. Empire
D. Confederation
Answer: B. Republic
35. Which voting right was introduced by the provisional government in 1848?
A. Property suffrage
B. Literacy test
C. Universal manhood suffrage
D. Tax-based vote
Answer: C. Universal manhood suffrage
36. Where was the first German national assembly summoned in 1848?
A. Berlin
B. Frankfurt
C. Munich
D. Vienna
Answer: B. Frankfurt
37. Which state became the center for Italian unification efforts after 1848?
A. Tuscany
B. Naples
C. Piedmont-Sardinia
D. Papal States
Answer: C. Piedmont-Sardinia
38. Who founded the secret society Young Italy in 1831?
A. Garibaldi
B. Cavour
C. Mazzini
D. Alfieri
Answer: C. Mazzini
39. Which secret society led the first stage of revolution in Italy?
A. Young Italy
B. Carbonari
C. Papal Guard
D. Jacobins
Answer: B. Carbonari
40. Which writer blamed lack of patriotism for Italian disunity?
A. Vittorio Alfieri
B. Carlo Denina
C. Niccolò Machiavelli
D. Alessandro Manzoni
Answer: B. Carlo Denina
41. In which year did France help Piedmont in a war against Austria?
A. 1856
B. 1859
C. 1866
D. 1870
Answer: B. 1859
42. Who led the revolt in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1860?
A. Cavour
B. Mazzini
C. Garibaldi
D. Victor Emmanuel
Answer: C. Garibaldi
43. In which year was Victor Emmanuel proclaimed king of a united Italy?
A. 1859
B. 1860
C. 1861
D. 1866
Answer: C. 1861
44. Which territory was annexed to Italy in 1866?
A. Rome
B. Venice
C. Piedmont
D. Lombardy
Answer: B. Venice
45. Which city’s capture in 1870 completed Italian unification?
A. Turin
B. Milan
C. Naples
D. Rome
Answer: D. Rome
46. Which Prussian statesman advocated the ‘blood and iron’ policy?
A. Wilhelm I
B. Metternich
C. Bismarck
D. Moltke
Answer: C. Bismarck
47. In which year did Prussia and Austria fight Denmark?
A. 1854
B. 1864
C. 1866
D. 1870
Answer: B. 1864
48. Which territories did Prussia gain from Denmark in 1864?
A. Alsace and Lorraine
B. Schleswig and Holstein
C. Saxony and Bavaria
D. Tyrol and Lombardy
Answer: B. Schleswig and Holstein
49. In which battle did Prussia defeat Austria in 1866?
A. Sedan
B. Königgrätz
C. Leipzig
D. Solferino
Answer: B. Königgrätz
50. Which incident triggered the Franco-Prussian War?
A. Zollverein
B. Ems Telegram
C. Vienna Note
D. Treaty of Paris
Answer: B. Ems Telegram
51. Which battle in 1870 saw the defeat of France by Prussia?
A. Waterloo
B. Sedan
C. Austerlitz
D. Sadowa
Answer: B. Sedan
52. Which regions did France cede to Germany after 1871?
A. Tyrol and Carinthia
B. Alsace and Lorraine
C. Schleswig and Holstein
D. Silesia and Posen
Answer: B. Alsace and Lorraine
53. On which date was the German Empire proclaimed?
A. January 1, 1871
B. January 17, 1871
C. February 17, 1871
D. March 17, 1871
Answer: B. January 17, 1871
54. What economic union aided German unification?
A. Zollverein
B. Hanseatic League
C. EEC
D. Confederation
Answer: A. Zollverein
55. Which empire was called the ‘sick man of Europe’?
A. Russian
B. Ottoman
C. Austrian
D. British
Answer: B. Ottoman
56. Which war began in March 1854 over claims in the Ottoman Empire?
A. Crimean War
B. Russo-Turkish War
C. Balkan War
D. First World War
Answer: A. Crimean War
57. In which month and year was the Treaty of Paris ending the Crimean War signed?
A. March 1854
B. March 1856
C. April 1856
D. May 1857
Answer: B. March 1856
58. Which nurse pioneered modern nursing during the Crimean War?
A. Mary Seacole
B. Florence Nightingale
C. Edith Cavell
D. Clara Barton
Answer: B. Florence Nightingale
59. Which secret society founded in Odessa in 1814 aimed for Greek independence?
A. Young Greece
B. Hetairia Philike
C. Philhellenes
D. Balkan League
Answer: B. Hetairia Philike
60. Which Russian tsar enacted the emancipation of the serfs in March 1861?
A. Nicholas I
B. Alexander II
C. Alexander III
D. Nicholas II
Answer: B. Alexander II
Additional Questions, Answers
1. Define Nation-State.
Answer: A nation-state may be said to have developed when a group of people living in a particular geographical area, speaking the same language combine together as ‘one people’, distinct from others, under a powerful king.
2. List three factors responsible for the growth of nation-states in Europe.
Answer: Three factors responsible for the growth of nation-states are:
- The decay of feudalism towards the end of the middle ages meant feudal lords were no longer in a position to oppose the power of the kings, making the emergence of nation-states possible.
- The Christian church gave up its earlier opposition to royal power and became supporters of powerful monarchy, helping the growth of nation-states by defending royal power.
- The financial support of the wealthy middle class made the kings more and more powerful, which was another important factor in the growth of nation-states.
3. Define Nationalism.
Answer: Generally speaking, nationalism is the sense of unity felt by people who share the same history, language and culture.
4. Which event is considered the starting point of modern nationalism in Europe?
Answer: The French Revolution and Napoleonic warfare in Europe are considered the starting point, as this period was particularly fruitful for the evolution of modern nationalism in Europe.
5. Name two symbols of French nationalism created during the Revolution.
Answer: Two symbols of French nationalism created during the Revolution were liberty caps worn by Frenchmen and the primitive weapons they carried when rushing to the war front.
6. What hymn became the national anthem of France?
Answer: La Marseillaise, a new hymn of freedom sung by troops from different parts of the country, later became the national anthem of France.
7. In which battle did coalition forces defeat Napoleon in 1813?
Answer: Coalition forces defeated Napoleon in the Battle of the Nations in the German city of Leipzig.
8. In what year was Napoleon first forced to abdicate?
Answer: Napoleon was first forced to abdicate in 1814.
9. Where was Napoleon exiled after his first abdication?
Answer: After his first abdication, Napoleon was sent into exile in the small island of Elba off the Italian coast.
10. What is the principle of “Legitimacy” as applied by the Congress of Vienna?
Answer: The principle of ‘Legitimacy’ applied by the Congress of Vienna was the principle under which the kings and dynasties who had ruled over countries prior to the French Revolution were restored, seeking to justify the return of discredited monarchies.
11. What was the primary objective of the Metternich System?
Answer: The primary objectives of the Metternich System were:
- Preservation of the arrangements made in the Vienna Congress.
- Hostility to Liberalism and Nationalism.
- Preservation of monarchy.
12. Who was the Austrian chancellor known for implementing the Metternich System?
Answer: Metternich, the Chancellor of Austria, was known for implementing the Metternich System.
13. In which month and year did the July Revolution in France occur?
Answer: The July Revolution in France occurred in July 1830.
14. Name one restriction imposed by Charles X’s July Ordinance.
Answer: One restriction imposed by Charles X’s July Ordinance was restricting the freedom of the press.
15. Who was the reactionary minister whose policies sparked the 1830 uprising in Paris?
Answer: Polignac, appointed as minister by Charles X in 1830, was the reactionary minister whose policies sparked the uprising.
16. Which king succeeded Charles X after the July Revolution?
Answer: Louis Philippe succeeded Charles X after the July Revolution and was made the new King of France.
17. Which country declared its independence in 1831 following the July Revolution?
Answer: The Belgians declared their independence in 1831 following the July Revolution.
18. What form of government replaced the monarchy in France after the February Revolution of 1848?
Answer: A ‘Republic’ replaced the monarchy in France after the February Revolution of 1848, known as the Second French Republic.
19. What type of suffrage was introduced in France under the provisional government in 1848?
Answer: Universal manhood suffrage was introduced in France under the provisional government in 1848.
20. Who founded the organisation Young Italy?
Answer: Guiseppe Mazzini founded the youth organization called Young Italy.
21. In what year was Young Italy established?
Answer: Young Italy was established in 1831.
22. What tariff union, formed in 1833, helped pave the way for German unification?
Answer: The Zollverein, a tariff-union effected by King Frederick William III of Prussia in 1833, helped pave the way for German unification.
23. Which duchies did Denmark cede after the 1864 war?
Answer: Denmark ceded Schleswig and Holstein after the 1864 war.
24. Name the battle in 1866 that secured Prussia’s victory over Austria.
Answer: The Battle of Sadowa in 1866 secured Prussia’s victory over Austria.
25. Which two territories did Germany acquire after the Franco-Prussian War?
Answer: Germany acquired Alsace and Lorraine after the Franco-Prussian War.
26. On which date was the German Empire proclaimed?
Answer: The German Empire was proclaimed, emerging as a unified nation-state, on 17 January 1871.
27. What treaty ended the Crimean War in 1856?
Answer: The Treaty of Paris, signed in March 1856, ended the Crimean War.
28. Who was known as the “Tsar Liberator” in Russia?
Answer: Tsar Alexander II is known in history as the Tsar Liberator because of the emancipation of the serfs.
29. When were the serfs emancipated in Russia?
Answer: The serfs were emancipated in Russia in March 1861 through the Emancipation Statute.
30. Which two provinces united to form Romania in 1861?
Answer: The two provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia united to form the new state of Romania in 1861.
31. Outline the factors responsible for the rise of modern nationalism between the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars.
Answer: The period of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars was particularly fruitful for the evolution of modern nationalism in Europe. During the French Revolution, all classes of people had become involved in the inspired loyalty towards the country that united the French people; a sudden spurt of nationalism was one of the most impressive features of the French Revolution. During this time, new symbols of nationalism were created in France, such as liberty caps and the hymn La Marseillaise.
Furthermore, in the process of empire building, French troops under Napoleon appeared in different countries of Europe. The presence of the French troops on foreign soil aroused a new feeling of nationalism among the people whose land had been invaded and occupied. Although Napoleon was not a believer in nationalism and his empire extinguished the liberties of many peoples, he had raised the banner of nationalism as he led the French army. By creating new unified states for the Italians, Poles, and some Germans, Napoleon unintentionally inspired nationalism amongst them.
32. Describe the objectives and outcomes of the Congress of Vienna, mentioning at least two dynasties that were restored.
Answer: The diplomats who assembled in the Congress of Vienna were all conservatives who desired to restore the pre-revolutionary condition in Europe. In bringing back the pre-revolutionary order, the makers of the Vienna Congress tried to turn the hands of the clock reversely. Their objective was the restoration of the despotic monarchies, thrust upon the people in denial of the new born ideas of liberalism and nationalism. They restored the kings and the dynasties who had ruled over countries prior to the French Revolution under the principle of ‘Legitimacy’.
As an outcome, the much hated Bourbon dynasty was restored in France, as also in Sicily and Naples. The House of Savoy was restored in Piedmont and Sardinia. Similarly, the House of Orange was restored in Holland. Domination of Austria over Germany and in Northern Italy was confirmed. Thus, in the name of ‘legitimacy’, the return of the discredited monarchies was sought to be justified. The statesmen at Vienna put emphasis on stability in Europe, brushing aside the wishes and aspirations of the people. In smaller states where constitutional government or republics were established, those were replaced by absolute monarchies.
33. Discuss the main aims of the Metternich System and the methods it used to suppress liberal and nationalist ideas.
Answer: As the Vienna Congress totally disregarded the principle of nationalism, Metternich, the Chancellor of Austria, through his ‘system’, sought to preserve the settlement made in the Vienna Congress. The objectives of the ‘system’ were: Preservation of the arrangements made in the Vienna Congress; Hostility to Liberalism and Nationalism; and Preservation of monarchy.
As a believer in monarchy, Metternich considered monarchy as the only natural form of government, guaranteeing social order. Alongside upholding monarchical supremacy, Metternich took steps to prevent the growth of the liberal and nationalist ideas released by the French Revolution. Through the Vienna Congress, Metternich convinced the big powers (Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England) that there was a revolutionary conspiracy against the monarchical system. By executing a Quadruple Alliance of these big powers, Metternich virtually built up a ‘police system’. The intention was to oversee the preservation of the monarchical predominance and prevention of the spread of the ideas of liberalism and nationalism.
34. Outline the key events leading to the outbreak of the July Revolution of 1830.
Answer: In France, the Bourbon Monarchy was restored in 1815. Louis XVIII initially made a compromise between liberalism and conservatism, granting fundamental liberties and a parliamentary system. However, after the murder of his cousin in 1820, Louis XVIII abandoned his liberal system and became despotic.
After Louis’ death in 1824, his brother Charles X ascended the throne and the French monarchy became despotic. He introduced the administrative system of the pre-revolutionary days, restoring the power of the clergy and aristocracy. In 1830, Charles appointed the reactionary Polignac as his minister, making the government an instrument of oppression. Polignac declared his intention to restore the lost prestige of the French clergy. Disgusted liberal members of the legislatures demanded Polignac’s resignation, but Charles X responded by disbanding the chambers.
Under Charles X’s direction, Polignac published his July Ordinance, which restricted the freedom of the press, diminished the number of electors, curbed voting rights, and announced a fresh election. Immediately, a revolt broke out in Paris in July 1830, known as the ‘July Revolution’. Armed workingmen barricaded the streets and defeated the King’s soldiers, forcing Charles X to abdicate.
35. Describe the programme of Young Italy as founded by Mazzini in 1831.
Answer: In 1831 Mazzini founded a youth organization called the Young Italy. The programme of the Young Italy was very clear and emphatic. It identified Austria as a stumbling block to Italian unification, hence Austria was to be pushed out of Italy. A war with Austria was considered inevitable. The programme stated that no foreign help was necessary in this war, as the Italian youth together was powerful enough to fight the Austrians out. Furthermore, a unified Italy must have a republican form of government.
36. Explain the diplomatic and military steps taken by Cavour that led to the unification of Italy by 1861.
Answer: Count Cavour furthered the unification of Italy, projecting Piedmont in the leadership role. Cavour realized that unity and independence of Italy could not be attained without foreign help. With this end in view, he cultivated friendship with France, Prussia, and Britain.
In 1859, France helped Piedmont in a war against Austria, resulting in the conquest of Lombardy. Meanwhile, four other Italian states revolted against their rulers to ally themselves with Piedmont. In 1860, the Kingdom of Two Sicilies (Sicily and Naples) revolted under the leadership of Garibaldi. In the same year, Cavour invaded the Papal States, all of which, except Rome, fell to the Piedmontese forces. Cavour then persuaded Garibaldi to permit the unification of the Two Sicilies with Piedmont. Thus, almost all the Italian peninsula was united. King Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed the King of Italy in 1861.
37. Explain Bismarck’s “blood and iron” policy and how it shaped Prussia’s path to German unity.
Answer: Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Prussia, was a nationalist who wanted to see Germany united under Prussian leadership. He was a strong man, not an idealist, and believed that Germany could not be united by setting up parliaments or through speeches and majority decisions. Bismarck openly declared that Austria had no place in Germany and a war was inevitable to remove Austria from leadership. He made Prussia the strongest of all the German states, disregarding all opposition.
Bismarck used to say that the great question of the day would be solved by ‘blood and iron’. This meant that the unification of Germany was to be effected through the use of force. In fact, the German unification was the result of three wars produced by the diplomacy of Bismarck, demonstrating his policy in action. This policy shaped Prussia’s path by prioritizing military strength and decisive warfare over diplomatic negotiation or parliamentary processes to achieve national unification.
38. Outline the main provisions and outcomes of Alexander II’s Emancipation Statute of 1861.
Answer: The Emancipation Statute, signed by Tsar Alexander II in March 1861, brought an end to serfdom in Russia. The characteristic features of the Statute were:
- Russian serfs were now free from the bondage to the feudal lords.
- A substantial section of the nobility’s land was distributed amongst the peasantry on a collective basis through village communes, called mir or obshchina.
- The Tsarist government advanced compensation money to the landowners on behalf of the peasants.
- This compensation was to be realized from the peasants in forty-nine installments, collected by the mirs and deposited to the government treasury.
Generally speaking, the emancipation yielded good results: the price of land increased considerably, collection of land-revenue increased improving government finances, and agricultural produce showed an upward swing enhancing trade. Though the emancipation improved the general condition of the peasantry, the less happy results were more important and had far-reaching consequences. The Statute failed to significantly improve the condition of the peasants; it was bulky and complex, and few could understand its implications. The provision for realizing advances in installments was disadvantageous. The Statute came as a bitter disappointment, as the hopes it raised could hardly be fulfilled within the framework of Tsarist autocracy.
39. Describe the causes, major powers involved and consequences of the Crimean War.
Answer: The Crimean War arose out of claims and counter claims of France and Russia over protection of the Greek and Latin monks within the Ottoman Empire (Turkey). Behind this apparent triviality lay deeper motives: Russian Tsar Nicholas I called Turkey the ‘Sick man of Europe’, believed its death was imminent, and contemplated its partition. Napoleon III of France wanted to dazzle the French people with a dashing foreign policy and retrieve national prestige by avenging the humiliation of Napoleon Bonaparte’s Moscow Expedition. The quarrel over monks provided France a handle against Russia. Russia’s policy of expansionism towards the Ottoman Empire was disliked by European powers, particularly Britain. Russia’s refusal to abide by proposals made in the Vienna Note, which asked Russia to withdraw claims on Turkey while admitting its guardianship over the Greek Orthodox Church, led Britain and France to declare war against Russia in support of Turkey in March 1854.
The parties to the Crimean War were Russia on one side, and Britain, France, and Turkey on the other. Austria remained neutral but gave moral support to Turkey.
The war finally ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris (March 1856). By the treaty, the Russian claim over the Greek Christians had to be withdrawn under pressure. Britain, France, and Austria undertook to protect the independence and territorial integrity of Turkey. The war seriously weakened Russia. Reports of terrible hospital conditions during the war led to Florence Nightingale setting up clean hospitals and providing proper nursing care, establishing her as a founder of modern nursing.
40. Explain the process through which the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia united to form Romania.
Answer: The two districts of Moldavia and Wallachia, at the mouth of the Danube river, virtually became independent at the end of the Crimean War. The people of Moldavia and Wallachia had always shown a strong national spirit. Little progress was made until 1856 when the powers recognized the two provinces’ independence with two separate assemblies. However, this separation was overcome when the two assemblies each chose the same prince. Thus, the two provinces were united to form the new state of Romania in 1861. The name Romania, however, was not officially given until 1866.
41. Analyse the conflict between monarchical restoration and nationalist movements in Europe between 1815 and 1848.
Answer: After the final defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the map of Europe, devastated by Napoleonic warfare, was sought to be reconstituted. The diplomats who assembled in the Congress of Vienna were all conservatives who desired to restore the pre-revolutionary condition in Europe. In doing so, they restored the kings and the dynasties who had ruled over countries prior to the French Revolution, applying the principle of ‘Legitimacy’. For instance, the Bourbon dynasty was restored in France, Sicily, and Naples, the House of Savoy in Piedmont and Sardinia, and the House of Orange in Holland. Domination of Austria over Germany and Northern Italy was confirmed. Thus, the return of discredited monarchies was sought to be justified.
This restoration of despotic monarchies was thrust upon the people in denial of the new born ideas of liberalism and nationalism that had been influenced by the French Revolution and Napoleon. Consequently, deeply influenced by the ideas of nationalism, the people of Europe, after 1815, began movements demanding reforms. When peaceful agitations yielded no result, the people, reformers, and their supporters revolted, as seen in Spain, Italy, and Germany in the following decades.
Metternich, the Chancellor of Austria, through his ‘system’, sought to preserve the settlement made in the Vienna Congress. The objectives were hostility to Liberalism and Nationalism and preservation of monarchy. Metternich considered monarchy the only natural form of government, guaranteeing social order, and took steps to prevent the growth of liberal and nationalist ideas. He convinced the big powers of a revolutionary conspiracy against the monarchical system and built up a ‘police system’ through the Quadruple Alliance (Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England) to oversee the preservation of monarchical predominance.
Despite these repressive measures, the aspirations of the people, mainly nationalist (seeking unity or independence, as in Germany and Italy) and democratic (seeking democratic principles and institutions, as in France, Spain, Russia, England), could not be suppressed. The Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 marked a conflict with monarchical absolutism. In countries like Germany and Italy, where people were racially one but politically divided, the revolutions turned aspirations towards nationalism – the achievement of unity and independence from alien domination. In countries where national unity had been achieved, struggles were directed towards liberalism, such as the establishment of representative governments and universal manhood suffrage.
42. Evaluate the significance of the Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 for the development of liberal and nationalist thought in Europe.
Answer: The forces of nationalism and the spirit of nationalism and liberalism, so unpleasant to the reactionaries, could not be suppressed in Europe after 1815. By 1830, discontent and the rising tide of nationalist aspirations reached explosive proportions.
The July Revolution of 1830 in France, which overthrew Charles X, had echoes elsewhere. It led to the Belgian declaration of independence in 1831, a striking victory of nationalism and the first breach of the Vienna Congress settlement. It inspired insurrection in Poland (though crushed), risings with constitutional aims in Italian states like Parma, Modena, and the Papal States (savagely suppressed), and demonstrations in several German states demanding constitutions or liberalization. In Spain and Portugal, agitations led rulers to introduce liberal administrative reforms. In England, it influenced the introduction of the Reform Bill in 1832. The July Revolution showed that the spirit of nationalism and liberalism could not be suppressed.
The February Revolution of 1848 in France, which established the Second Republic, had an even greater impact, representing a ‘Tidal Wave’. Its importance lay in finally overthrowing the reactionary Metternich System, which had been gagging nationalist attempts since 1815. The Revolution proved it was impossible to kill ideas; the forces of liberalism and nationalism released by the French Revolution worked their way through the conservative shell. In Germany and Italy, the Revolution deepened nationalist sentiments for union. In Germany, liberals summoned a national assembly at Frankfurt (Frankfurt Parliament), the first important step towards German unification. The nationalist struggle in Italy revealed Piedmont-Sardinia as the centre for unification and awakened national consciousness. In Hungary, liberals effected a revolution, freed the press, abolished feudalism, established a liberal government, and Hungary emerged as a free national state.
Both the Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 marked a conflict between conservative monarchical ideas and liberalism on one hand, and nationalism on the other. They advanced the cause of representative governments, universal manhood suffrage, and freedom of the press in some nations, while primarily pushing for national unity and independence from alien domination in politically divided nations like Germany and Italy.
43. Discuss the role of France in the unification of Italy.
Answer: France played a role, both intentionally and unintentionally, in the process of Italian unification. Initially, Napoleon Bonaparte’s conquests and actions had far-reaching consequences. By creating new unified states for the Italians, Napoleon unintentionally inspired nationalism amongst them. His conquest of the mainland gave some encouragement to Italian nationalism.
Later, during the Risorgimento, Italian liberals in 1830 cherished the idea that France would support the Italian revolution, although this support did not materialize effectively at that time, and revolts were suppressed.
A more direct and crucial role was played through the actions of Count Cavour, the statesman who projected Piedmont into the leadership of unification. Cavour realized that unity and independence of Italy could not be attained without foreign help. With this end in view, he cultivated friendship with France. In 1859, France, under Napoleon III, helped Piedmont in a war against Austria. As a result of this French military assistance, Lombardy was conquered from Austria, marking a significant step towards unification.
44. Critically assess the economic and political impact of the Zollverein on the unification of Germany.
Answer: The Zollverein was a tariff-union that was effected by King Frederick William III of Prussia in 1833. This tariff-union had done away with the prevalent tariff barriers between the provinces of Prussia. Later on, the rulers of other German states also participated in the tariff-union. The formation of Zollverein was an important economic step that helped the process of unification of Germany later.
45. Examine the causes, conduct and consequences of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71.
Answer: Causes: The Franco-Prussian War occurred in 1870. France was alarmed at the growing power of Prussia following the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. The French realized that Bismarck would unite all the German states and that the German nation would emerge as the strongest power in Europe. Bismarck, the Chancellor of Prussia, was chiefly to be blamed for the outbreak of the war, as he fondly desired it for the unification of Germany. On 12 July 1870, Bismarck received a telegram from Ems, where the Prussian King William was holidaying, communicating about a meeting to be held between the King and Count Benedetti, the French ambassador. Apprehending that the meeting might resolve disputes, Bismarck reduced the telegram by striking out words, without adding or altering anything, in such a way as to make the French people believe their country had been insulted by the Germans, and to make the Germans believe that they were being threatened by France. Bismarck released this altered Ems Telegram to the press. This infuriated the Frenchmen, and a strong public opinion was created in France for waging war with Prussia. When King William saw the published version, he remarked, ‘This is war’.
Conduct: In the Battle of Sedan (1870) that followed, the French were badly defeated by the Prussian troops.
Consequences: As a result of the defeat, France had to give up two important territories, Alsace and Lorraine, to Germany. After the war, all the German states joined to form a new nation. On 17 January 1871, Germany emerged as a unified nation-state. The Franco-Prussian War thus completed the unification of Germany. Since then, however, Germany and France remained bitter enemies.
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