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Institutional Structure: NBSE Class 12 (Arts) Sociology answers
Get summary, textual answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF to NBSE Class 12 (Arts) Sociology Chapter/unit 3 Institutional Structure. However, the educational materials should only be used for reference and students are encouraged to make necessary changes.
If you notice any errors in the notes, please mention them in the comments
Introduction
Marriage, family, and kinship are interconnected yet separate concepts. Marriage is the societal mechanism that formally recognizes the bond between a man and a woman as husband and wife. It typically serves as the foundation for the establishment of a family. Kinship, on the other hand, represents the social connections formed on the basis of familial ties. Each of these three elements is present across all societies. While their fundamental essence is universally recognized, the importance ascribed to them and the specific norms surrounding them differ among societies and communities.
Textual questions and answers
Very short answer questions
1. What is marriage?
Answer: Marriage is a social institution that sanctions the relationship of a man and woman as husband and wife.
2. What is levirate?
Answer: Levirate is the form of marriage in which a woman marries the younger brother of her dead husband.
3. What is sororate?
Answer: Sororate is the form of marriage in which a man, after his wife’s death, marries his wife’s sister.
4. How is marriage understood among the Hindus?
Answer: Marriage is considered a permanent bond in traditional Hindu belief. It is believed to join two individuals for life in order to pursue the basic aims in life called purusharthas, which are dharma (duty), artha (possessions), kama (physical desires), and moksha (ultimate spiritual release).
5. What is endogamy?
Answer: Endogamy is a rule of mate selection in Hinduism that prescribes that a Hindu must marry within his or her own caste. It is a form of marriage that involves marrying someone within one’s own caste.
6. What is exogamy?
Answer: Exogamy is a rule of marriage that prescribes whom a Hindu cannot marry. It prohibits marriage with a person of the same gotra or pinda.
7. What is inter-caste marriage?
Answer: Inter-caste marriage is the practice of Hindus marrying outside their caste.
8. What is hypergamy or anulom?
Answer: Hypergamy or Anulom is that form of marriage in which the ritual status of a man is higher than that of his prospective wife.
9. What is hypogamy or pratilom?
Answer: Hypogamy or Pratilom is a form of marriage in which the ritual status of a woman is higher than that of her prospective husband.
10. What is nikah?
Answer: Nikah is a social and civil contract among Muslims in India, usually performed with religious rituals. It is a marriage ceremony that involves the groom, the bride, the Kazi, and witnesses (two male or four female witnesses).
11. What is nikahnama?
Answer: Nikahnama is the marriage contract in Muslim marriages in India. It is a social and civil contract that is sanctioned when the bride and groom voluntarily agree to the marriage in the presence of a Kazi and witnesses.
12. What is mehr?
Answer: Mehr is the bride-wealth which the groom gives to the bride at the time of the marriage or later on in Muslim marriages.
13. What are the two types of Muslim marriage?
Answer: The two types of Muslim marriage are regular (Sahi) and irregular (Fasid). Irregular marriages occur in cases such as absence of witnesses, differences in religion, marrying a woman undergoing Iddad, and marrying during pilgrimage. Irregular marriages can be made regular.
14. Define joint family.
Answer: A joint family is a group of people who generally live under one roof, eat food cooked at one hearth, hold property in common, participate in common family worship and are related to each other as some kind of kindred.
15. Define kinship.
Answer: Kinship is a social relationship based on family relatedness, which can be through blood, marriage, or adoption.
16. What is consanguinity?
Answer: Consanguinity is a relationship based on common blood.
17. What is affinity?
Answer: Affinity is the relationship based on marriage.
18. What is a lineage?
Answer: A lineage is a group whose members trace common descent from an ancestor through known links.
19. What is a clan?
Answer: A clan is a group of people who claim descent from a common ancestor but cannot trace the links. It is usually composed of several lineages.
20. What is descent?
Answer: Descent refers to the tracing of relationships through succeeding generations.
21. What is unilineal descent?
Answer: Unilineal descent is a system of tracing descent through only one line, either the male or female line.
22. What is double or duo lineal or bilineal descent?
Answer: Double or duo lineal or bilineal descent is a system of tracing descent through both the male and female lines. In this system, descent can be traced through the male line for some purposes and through the female line for other purposes.
23. How is marriage understood among the tribal communities?
Answer: Marriage among tribal communities is understood as a social contract for sexual pleasure, production of children, and mutual cooperation. Divorce is permitted if these aims are not fulfilled.
Short answer questions
1. Differentiate between hypergamy and hypogamy.
Answer: Hypergamy is a form of marriage in which the ritual status of a man is higher than that of his prospective wife. On the other hand, hypogamy is a form of marriage in which the ritual status of a woman is higher than that of her prospective husband.
2. Name the defining features of nikah (Muslim marriage).
Answer: The defining features of nikah (Muslim marriage) are:
- The groom
- The bride
- The Kazi
- Witnesses (two male or four female witnesses)
The bride and groom are asked by the Kazi in the presence of the witnesses about their voluntary consent to the marriage. When they agree voluntarily, the marriage contract is sanctioned. This is called Nikahnama. A part of the contract is the agreement about Mehr or bride-wealth which the groom gives to the bride at the time of the marriage or later on.
3. Explain briefly the role of kinship.
Answer: Kinship serves two important and related purposes:
Kinship provides a way for transmitting status and property from one generation to the next. This is the area of descent which traces relationships through succeeding generations.
Kinship regulates social behaviour: It establishes and maintains effective social groups for cooperation and social behaviour. It regulates social behaviour relating to birth, marriage and death. It indicates the expectations, rights and duties that kinsmen have for one another.
4. Distinguish between consanguineous and affinal kinship.
Answer: Consanguineous kinship refers to the relationship based on common blood, such as between siblings or parents and children. Affinal kinship, on the other hand, refers to the relationship based on marriage, such as between spouses or in-laws. In other words, consanguineous kinship is based on biological ties, while affinal kinship is based on social ties.
Essay type questions
1. Explain the different ways of acquiring mates among the tribal communities.
Answer: There are various ways of acquiring mates found in different tribal societies. One common form is marriage by negotiation, which involves a long procedure and the involvement of parents and elders of both the boy and girl. Another type is marriage by probation, where a man is allowed to live with the woman at her parents’ house for a specific period of time. If they can adjust to each other during this period, they marry, but if not, they separate and the man has to pay compensation to the woman’s parents. Marriage by capture is another type, where a man marries a woman forcibly, either through physical capture or ceremonial capture. Marriage by trial requires a man to show his prowess and courage by braving obstacles thrown in his way. Marriage by purchase takes place when the parents of the bridegroom pay something in cash or kind to the parents of the bride. Marriage by service takes place when the bridegroom lives in the house of the bride before marriage and renders service or works for the family of the bride. Marriage by exchange takes place when two families exchange their son and daughter. Marriage by elopement takes place when a man and woman love each other, but parents do not easily approve of their marriage, so they elope or run away from the village. Finally, marriage by intrusion takes place when a man and woman have an intimate relationship, but the man refuses to marry the woman, so the woman takes the initiative and goes to live in the man’s house.
2. Briefly discuss marriage among the Hindus.
Answer: Marriage among the Hindus is considered a sacrament or religious bond. It is believed to be a permanent bond and a religious duty. The aims of Hindu marriage are to pursue the basic aims in life called purusharthas, which are dharma (duty), artha (possessions), kama (physical desires), and moksha (ultimate spiritual release). Marriage is necessary for fulfilling various religious obligations, such as entering the stage of grihastha or householder, fulfilling religious obligations of dharma, praja, and rati, and purifying the body. There are detailed rules and regulations regarding the choice of marriage partners, including the rules of endogamy and exogamy. The first four forms of marriage are “approved” and the other four are “not approved”. The ceremony of ‘kanyadana’ (gift of the girl by her father) makes the first four forms approved and acceptable in society.
3. Muslim marriage is a contract. Explain this statement.
Answer: Muslim marriage is considered a social and civil contract. The groom, bride, Kazi, and witnesses are the defining features of the contract. The bride and groom must give their voluntary consent to the marriage in the presence of the witnesses and Kazi. The marriage contract, known as Nikahnama, is sanctioned when the bride and groom agree voluntarily. The agreement about Mehr or bride-wealth, which the groom gives to the bride at the time of the marriage or later on, is also a part of the contract. As a contract, marriage can be dissolved through a prescribed procedure, making divorce possible. Therefore, Muslim marriage is considered a contract.
4. Write an essay on Muslim marriage.
Answer: Muslim marriage, also known as Nikah, is a social and civil contract among Muslims in India. It is usually performed with religious rituals, but it can be dissolved through a prescribed procedure, making divorce possible. The defining features of Nikah are the groom, the bride, the Kazi, and witnesses (two male or four female witnesses).
The bride and the groom are asked by the Kazi in the presence of the witnesses about their voluntary consent to the marriage. When they agree voluntarily, the marriage contract is sanctioned, and this is called Nikahnama. A part of the contract is the agreement about Mehr or bride-wealth which the groom gives to the bride at the time of the marriage or later on.
There are many social customs observed at the time of marriage, and Muslims share such customs with the Hindus in a particular region. A Muslim man can marry up to four wives, but such polygyny is rare because the man is required to treat all his wives equally. Hence, in practice, most Muslim marriages are monogamous.
There are two types of marriages: regular (Sahi) and irregular (Fasid). Irregular marriages occur in such cases as the absence of witnesses, like the fifth marriage of a man, differences in religion, marrying a woman undergoing Iddad, and marrying during pilgrimage. Irregular marriages can be made regular.
5. Write an essay on Christian marriage in India.
Answer: Christianity considers marriage as not only a social contract but also a sacrament. Marriage is considered sacred among all Christians, but some Christian denominations permit divorce. Monogamy is the general norm among all Christians, and widow remarriage is permitted.
For a valid Christian marriage, certain conditions must be fulfilled. Marriage partners must be adults and capable of contracting marriage. The choice of partners may be done by the parents or elders, but the consent of the boy and the girl is essential. The following procedure is usually followed:
- Production of a character certificate followed by the engagement when the boy and the girl declare their intention to marry.
- Submitting an application to the church pastor or priest three weeks before the date of marriage.
- The priest or pastor makes an announcement about the proposed marriage and invites objections. This is known as reading of the banns. If there are no objections, the date of marriage is fixed.
- At the time fixed for the marriage, the actual ceremony takes place in the church in the presence of the people and two witnesses. The priest or pastor asks the bridegroom and the bride to declare their consent and to exchange their marriage vows to be faithful to each other. Usually, wedding rings, symbol of the married status are exchanged after this.
The priest or the pastor acts as the Registrar of Marriage according to the provisions of Indian Christian Marriage Act of 1872. He also records the marriage in the Register of Marriages maintained in the church.
After the marriage ritual in the church, there are celebrations of different types. In such celebrations, Christians follow many local social practices found among their Hindu neighbors.
6. Name any two structural features of a joint family. What are the factors that are now leading to the break up of the joint family system?
Answer: Two structural features of a joint family are common residence and kitchen, and large size due to the depth of generations. Factors leading to the break up of the joint family system include differential earnings of brothers generating tensions in the household, disinclination of sons and their wives to share responsibilities, growth of individualism, and the development of the secondary and tertiary sectors in the Indian economy. Additionally, there have been functional changes in the joint family, such as changes in wife-husband relations and parent-children relationships, which have contributed to the break up of the joint family system.
7. What is a joint family? Explain any three functional elements of a joint family system in India.
Answer: A joint family is a group of people who generally live under one roof, eat food cooked at one hearth, hold property in common, participate in common family worship and are related to each other as some kind of kindred. The three functional elements of the joint family system in India are:
- Common rituals and ceremonies, in accordance with caste norms and religious obligations.
- Role of Karta, who is usually the eldest male and exercises authority.
- Mutual obligations among the members which bind them with reciprocal relationships.
The joint family has been the cultural norm and ideal pattern of family life in Indian society. It has been one of the pillars of Indian society along with the caste system and the village community. However, there have been changes in the joint family due to factors such as differential earnings of brothers, disinclination of the sons and their wives to share responsibilities, growth of individualism, and the development of the secondary and the tertiary sectors in the Indian economy. These changes have led to the breakup of the joint family into smaller nuclear households.
8. Write a short note on changes in the joint family.
Answer: The joint family system in India has undergone significant changes in modern times. Some of the structural changes include the break-up of joint families into smaller nuclear households due to differential earnings of brothers, disinclination of sons and their wives to share responsibilities, growth of individualism, and the development of the secondary and tertiary sectors in the Indian economy.
Functional changes in the joint family are observed in the areas of wife-husband relations, parent-children relationships, and relationships between daughter-in-law and parents-in-law due to the changing role and status of women.
At present, the joint family as a cultural norm and ideal is generally accepted, but the nuclear family is becoming popular among some classes, particularly the urban middle and professional classes. These classes have accepted the small family norm, and their families are small in size and economically stable because often both parents are employed.
9. Explain four factors leading to the disintegration of the joint family in India.
Answer: Four factors leading to the disintegration of the joint family in India are:
- Differential earnings of brothers generating tensions in the household
- Disinclination of the sons and their wives to share responsibilities
- Growth of individualism
- Development of the secondary and tertiary sectors in the Indian economy
These factors have led to structural changes in the joint family, such as its break up into smaller nuclear households, and functional changes, such as changes in wife-husband and parent-children relationships. While the joint family is still generally accepted as a cultural norm and ideal, the nuclear family is becoming more popular among urban middle and professional classes.
10. What is kinship? Discuss the functions of Kinship in Indian society.
Answer: Kinship refers to social relationships based on blood, marriage, or adoption. In Indian society, kinship plays an important role in shaping social relationships beyond the family. The functions of kinship in Indian society include:
- Transmission of status and property: Kinship provides a way for transmitting status and property from one generation to the next. This is the area of descent which traces relationships through succeeding generations.
- Economic support: Kinship provides economic support to its members. In joint families, members pool their resources and work together to support each other.
- Socialization: Kinship plays an important role in socializing children. Children learn about their roles and responsibilities within the family and society through kinship relationships.
- Emotional support: Kinship provides emotional support to its members. Family members provide each other with love, care, and emotional support during times of need.
- Identity formation: Kinship helps in the formation of individual and group identities. People identify themselves and others based on their kinship relationships.
11. Define joint family. Explain the structural and functional changes of a joint family.
Answer: A joint family is a group of people who generally live under one roof, eat food cooked at one hearth, hold property in common, participate in common family worship and are related to each other as some kind of kindred. The joint family has been the cultural norm and ideal pattern of family life in Indian society.
Structural changes in the joint family are seen in its break up into smaller nuclear households. This is due to various factors such as differential earnings of brothers generating tensions in the household, disinclination of the sons and their wives to share responsibilities, growth of individualism, and the development of the secondary and the tertiary sectors in the Indian economy.
Functional changes in the joint family are observed in the following areas:
- Wife-husband relations, with the wife playing a more active role, often at par with the husband.
- Parent-children relationships that give importance to children.
- Relationships between daughter-in-law and parents-in-law because of the changing role and status of women.
12. Discuss the North Indian and South Indian kinship system in India.
Answer: The North Indian and South Indian kinship systems in India have significant differences in marriage rules, succession, and inheritance. In North India, the basic kinship group consists of Kula, Gotra, and Jati. Kula and Gotra are exogamous units, while Jati is endogamous. There is also village exogamy, resulting in a significant distance between the bride and the groom. On the other hand, in South India, there are both patrilineal and matrilineal communities, and marriage alliances are within a known circle. There are also preferred marriages like cross-cousin marriages and uncle-niece marriages. The bride is familiar with the family into which she is married, and thus, a marriage alliance strengthens existing kinship bonds.
Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) and Problem Solving Assessment (PSA)
1. In the Naga society marriage is increasingly becoming expensive and time consuming. Suggest measures to perform holy matrimonial without involving worldly materials and time wastage.
Answer: Marriage is indeed a significant event in any culture, including the Naga society. It is a time of joy and celebration but can often become complex and expensive due to various cultural practices and societal expectations. If the focus is to make it less materialistic and time-consuming, here are a few suggestions:
Simplify the ceremony: A simple ceremony with just close family and friends can be just as meaningful, if not more so, than a large and lavish event. In fact, a smaller event may allow for more personal and heartfelt moments.
Redefine gift giving: Instead of expensive gifts or a dowry, encourage guests to contribute in other ways. This could be their time, skills, or even their presence. For example, a friend who’s good at photography could offer to take wedding pictures, or a family member who’s a good cook could help with the wedding meal.
Promote community involvement: Involve the community in the planning and execution of the wedding. This not only reduces costs but also strengthens communal bonds. For instance, community members could contribute by decorating the venue, preparing food, or providing music.
Shift focus to the marriage, not the wedding: Emphasize the importance of the marriage itself—the lifelong commitment between two individuals—rather than the wedding. This can help shift the focus away from material aspects and towards the spiritual and emotional components.
Educate the community: Changing long-standing cultural practices and expectations can be challenging. Therefore, it is essential to educate the community about the reasons for these changes and their potential benefits. Workshops, seminars, and discussions can be organized to promote this understanding.
Spiritual Emphasis: Refocus the event on spiritual aspects, prayers, and blessings, rather than material consumption. This emphasis can provide a profound and personal aspect to the ceremony that is more in line with the idea of a ‘holy matrimonial’.
2. Criminals often go scot free in Nagaland due to kin interferences against existing formal laws. How should the society act in the Naga context? Why.
Answer: Kin interference in the justice system is a serious problem in Nagaland. It can lead to criminals going unpunished, which can create a sense of impunity and undermine the rule of law. There are a number of reasons why kin interference occurs in Nagaland. One reason is that Naga society is traditionally based on clan and village ties. These ties can be very strong, and they can lead people to feel a sense of obligation to protect their kin, even if they have committed crimes. Another reason for kin interference is that Nagas have a strong cultural belief in forgiveness. This belief can make it difficult for people to believe that criminals should be punished, even if they have committed serious crimes.
There are a number of things that can be done to address the problem of kin interference in the justice system in Nagaland. One important step is to educate people about the importance of the rule of law. People need to understand that the law applies to everyone, regardless of their family ties. Another important step is to strengthen the justice system. This can be done by providing more resources to the police and the courts, and by ensuring that the justice system is fair and impartial. Finally, it is important to work to change the cultural attitudes that contribute to kin interference. This can be done through education and awareness-raising campaigns.
Extra/additional questions and answers
1. Define marriage, family, and kinship and explain how they are interrelated.
Answer: Marriage, family, and kinship are all interrelated social constructs that are universally recognized. Marriage is the social institution that sanctions the relationship of a man and a woman as husband and wife. It is generally the foundation on which the family is built. Family, in this context, refers to the group of individuals linked by the bonds of marriage. Kinship, on the other hand, is the social relationship based on family relatedness. The interrelation lies in the way these three institutions work together to form social bonds and establish societal norms. Marriage leads to the creation of families, and families share kinship ties based on their shared ancestry or marriage.
2. How is the institution of marriage perceived in tribal societies?
Answer: In tribal societies, marriage is seen as a social contract for sexual pleasure, the production of children, and mutual cooperation. The institution of marriage is prevalent in all tribal societies, with well-defined rules and procedures concerning different aspects of marriage. However, the practices and norms related to marriage may vary greatly among different tribes due to the diversity in tribal communities.
3. What are some general features of marriage in tribal societies?
Answer: There are several characteristic features of marriage in tribal societies. Primarily, it is viewed as a social contract aimed at sexual pleasure, production of children, and mutual cooperation. If these aims are not met, divorce is typically allowed. Most tribes enforce marital fidelity, but some permit pre-marital and extra-marital relations on festive occasions. In terms of marriage forms, most tribes follow monogamy, though some accept polygyny and others accept polyandry. Preferential marriages, such as cross-cousin marriages, are also observed in certain tribes like the Khasis and Gonds. Levirate and sororate marriages are also practiced in some tribes.
4. Discuss the differences in marriage norms and procedures among various tribes in India and provide examples.
Answer: There are well-defined rules and procedures about different aspects of marriage in tribal societies, but these rules differ between tribes due to the large number of tribes found in India. These variations are based on principles and norms followed by the tribes concerned. For instance:
- In terms of marriage types, most tribes follow monogamy, while some tribes like Nagas, Baigas, and Gonds accept polygyny. Some tribes like Todas and certain tribes in Arunachal Pradesh practice polyandry, both fraternal and non-fraternal.
- In the case of preferential marriages, among the Khasis and Gonds, there is a preference for cross cousin marriages or marriages between the children of a brother and a sister.
- Levirate and sororate are also examples of variations in marriage practices. In levirate, a woman marries the younger brother of her dead husband, whereas, in sororate, a man marries his wife’s sister after his wife’s death.
These differences highlight the cultural diversity and variations in the institution of marriage among tribal societies in India.
5. What are some types of preferential marriages observed in tribal societies? Give examples.
Answer: Preferential marriages, or preferences in mate selection, vary across tribal societies. A common form of preferential marriage is cross cousin marriage, observed among tribes like the Khasis and Gonds. This is a marriage between the children of a brother and a sister. Other forms of preferential marriages include levirate and sororate. In levirate marriage, a woman marries the younger brother of her deceased husband. In sororate marriage, a man marries his deceased wife’s sister. These practices ensure the continuity of social and familial bonds even in the event of a spouse’s death.
Q. How does marital fidelity vary among tribal societies, and under what circumstances is it more lax?
Answer: Marital fidelity is enforced in most tribes, meaning that they expect spouses to be faithful to each other. However, some tribes permit laxity in the form of pre-marital and extra-marital relations on festive occasions. This is a cultural variation that depends on the norms and values of the specific tribes, and it shows that the concept of marital fidelity is not universal across all tribal societies.
Q. What is Marriage by negotiation and which tribal communities practice it?
Answer: Marriage by negotiation is a common form of acquiring a mate in tribal societies. This is a long procedure that involves the parents and elders of both the boy and the girl. It often involves a go-between or mediator and is regulated by customs and traditional practices specific to each tribal community.
Q. Could you explain what is meant by Marriage by probation and where is it commonly found?
Answer: Marriage by probation is a form of marriage where a man is allowed to live with the woman at her parents’ house for a specific period of time. During this period, if they can adjust to each other, they get married. If not, they separate and the man has to pay some money to the woman’s parents as compensation. If the woman becomes pregnant during this period, the man must marry her. This type of marriage is found among some Kuki tribes.
Q. What are the two types of Marriage by capture and which tribal communities practice them?
Answer: There are two types of Marriage by capture. The first is physical capture, where a man carries away a woman by force and marries her. This type is found among Bhils, Muria Gonds, and Badagas. The second type is ceremonial capture, where a man surprises the woman and applies vermillion or a similar marriage mark on her. This type is found among Santhals. The excessive bride-price is the main reason for this type of marriage.
Q. Can you describe what is Marriage by trial and where is it practiced?
Answer: Marriage by trial is a form of marriage where a man is required to display his prowess and courage by braving the obstacles thrown in his way. This type of marriage is found among the Bhils. It signifies the importance of bravery and ability to overcome challenges in the context of tribal marriages.
Q. What is Marriage by purchase and where is it commonly found?
Answer: Marriage by purchase is a form of marriage where the parents of the bridegroom pay something in cash or kind to the parents of the bride. Such payment is called bride-price. This type of marriage is found in some tribes of Central India and Arunachal Pradesh. It signifies the transfer of economic resources from the groom’s family to the bride’s family as part of the marriage agreement.
Q. Can you explain the concept of Marriage by service and which tribal communities practice it?
Answer: Marriage by service takes place when the bridegroom lives in the house of the bride before marriage and renders service or works for the family of the bride. If the family of the bride is satisfied with his services, then the marriage takes place. This practice is found among the Gonds and Baigas tribes. The service rendered can range from household chores to farming and hunting.
Q. What does Marriage by exchange entail and where is it commonly practiced?
Answer: Marriage by exchange takes place when two families exchange their son and daughter in marriage. This practice is very common in Indian tribes such as the Muria Gonds, Baigas, Koya, and Saora tribes. This form of marriage not only unites two individuals but also strengthens ties between two families.
Q. Can you describe Marriage by elopement and where is it found?
Answer: Marriage by elopement takes place when a man and woman who are in love with each other, but whose parents do not approve of their marriage, decide to elope or run away from their village. When they return after some time, they are recognized as husband and wife. This practice is found in many tribes. Among the Hos, it is called Raji Khushi.
Q. What is the significance of marriage in Hinduism?
Answer: Marriage among the Hindus is not merely a union between a male and a female but a sacrament or religious bond. Traditional Hindu belief considers marriage as a permanent bond that joins two individuals for life in order to pursue the basic aims in life called purusharthas: dharma (duty), artha (possessions), kama (physical desires), and moksha (ultimate spiritual release). Hindu marriage is a samskara (sacrament) or life ritual and is considered the most important samskara.
Q. Enumerate the aims of Hindu Marriage.
Answer:
- As a sacrament (samskara), marriage is necessary for fulfilling various religious obligations and is the means for entering the stage of grihastha or householder.
- Marriage is necessary for fulfilling religious obligations of dharma (duty), praja (procreation) and rati (pleasure).
- Hindus consider marriage as a samskara (sacrament) for purifying the body. For a woman, it is the only samskara.
- For a Hindu grihastha (householder), marriage is necessary in order to discharge certain obligations like performing sacrifices to the gods and ancestors and offer hospitality to guests. A grihastha can discharge these duties only if he has his wife with him.
- Hindus believe in the concept of three rinas or religious debts. These are debts to ancestors, gods and teachers. A Hindu can discharge these debts only by begetting a son.
Q. What are the rules of mate selection in Hinduism?
Answer: There are detailed rules and regulations regarding the choice of marriage partners in Hinduism. These are the rules of endogamy and exogamy.
- Rules of endogamy prescribe whom a Hindu can marry. The basic rule is that of caste endogamy. A Hindu must marry within his or her caste.
- Rules of exogamy prescribe whom a Hindu cannot marry. The important rules are sagotra exogamy and sapinda exogamy. A Hindu cannot marry with a person of the same gotra or pinda.
Q. Explain the importance of marriage for a Hindu grihastha (householder).
Answer: For a Hindu grihastha (householder), marriage is of utmost importance. It is necessary in order to discharge certain obligations like performing sacrifices to the gods and ancestors, and offering hospitality to guests. The grihastha stage is seen as the phase of life where individuals take on their responsibilities in the world, and the presence of a spouse is crucial to fulfilling these obligations. A grihastha can discharge these duties only if he has his wife with him. Therefore, marriage is not only a religious duty but also a social obligation that equips a person to fulfil their societal roles.
Q. Elaborate on the concept of three rinas or religious debts in Hinduism and its relation to marriage.
Answer: In Hinduism, it is believed that every individual is born with three rinas, or religious debts, which they are obligated to repay during their lifetime. These debts are owed to the ancestors, the gods, and the teachers. The repayment of these debts is a primary duty and is often linked to the institution of marriage. The debt to the ancestors is repaid by begetting a son, who will carry on the lineage and perform the necessary rites and rituals after the death of the person. The debt to the gods is repaid through various rituals and sacrifices, which, according to Hindu belief, are effective only when performed with the wife.
Q. What is an inter-caste marriage in the context of modern Hinduism?
Answer: An inter-caste marriage in the context of modern Hinduism is a marriage that occurs between individuals belonging to different castes.
Q. Describe the concept of Hypergamy and Hypogamy in Hindu marriages.
Answer: Hypergamy, or Anulom, is a form of marriage in which the ritual status of a man is higher than that of his prospective wife. On the other hand, Hypogamy, or Pratilom, is a form of marriage in which the ritual status of a woman is higher than that of her prospective husband.
Q. Can you list and briefly explain the eight different forms of marriages recognised in Hinduism?
Answer:
- Brahma marriage: This is the marriage in which the father of the bride gives his daughter, after decking her with costly garments and jewels, to a man of good behaviour and learned in the Vedas.
- Daiva marriage: In this type of marriage, the father of bride offers his daughter to the very priest who is officiating at or conducting the marriage ceremony.
- Arsha marriage: This marriage form involves the father giving his daughter to a man from whom he has received a cow and a bull, or two pairs as bride price.
- Prajaptya marriage: In this marriage, the father of bride gives his daughter to a man with the blessing that both of them perform their duties and have progeny.
- Gandharva marriage: This is the marriage of a girl and boy who are in love and does not involve the father of the bride.
- Asura marriage: This is the marriage in which the bridegroom gives money and other things to the family of the girl. It is referred to as marriage ‘by purchase’ and involves ‘bride price’.
- Rakshasa marriage: This is the marriage in which there is the forcible abduction of the girl after defeating or killing her kinsmen. It is considered marriage by capture.
- Paishacha marriage: This is the marriage by stealth of a girl who is sleeping or intoxicated. It is referred to as marriage by cheating and deception.
Q. Can you elaborate on the significance of Kanyadan in Hindu marriages and which forms of marriage include this ceremony?
Answer: Kanyadan is a significant ritual in Hindu marriages. In this ceremony, the father gives away his daughter to the groom. The act of Kanyadan is considered very sacred and is believed to confer great merit on the father. It is a symbol of the father’s acceptance of the groom as a worthy man to marry his daughter. The first four forms of marriage in Hinduism include the ceremony of Kanyadan. These are Brahma, Daiva, Arsha, and Prajapatya marriages. In these forms, the father of the bride plays an active role in giving his daughter to the groom. The ritual of Kanyadan makes these forms of marriages approved and acceptable in society.
Q. What is the legal status of inter-caste marriages in Hinduism and which laws govern them? Also, differentiate between the concepts of Anulom and Pratilom, and discuss how they relate to Hypergamy and Hypogamy.
Answer: Inter-caste marriages in Hinduism, while not traditionally approved, are legally valid according to modern law. This legal status is granted by the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 and the Special Marriages Act of 1954. Both of these acts ensure the legality of marriages that happen between individuals of different castes.
Anulom and Pratilom are two terms related to the practice of marriage in Hinduism. They are essentially the concepts that define Hypergamy and Hypogamy. Anulom, or Hypergamy, is the form of marriage in which the ritual status of a man is higher than that of his prospective wife. In other words, a woman marries “up” into a higher caste or social group. This was traditionally seen as more acceptable and in line with societal norms.
On the other hand, Pratilom or Hypogamy, is the form of marriage in which the ritual status of a woman is higher than that of her prospective husband, meaning a man marries “up” into a higher caste or social group. This form of marriage was traditionally seen as less acceptable and against societal norms. However, these concepts are evolving with the changing societal structure, and both forms of marriages can be seen in today’s times.
Q. What is the term for marriage among Muslims and how is it viewed?
Answer: The term for marriage among Muslims is known as Nikah. It is viewed as a social and civil contract that is usually performed with religious rituals. As a contract, marriage can be dissolved through a prescribed procedure, therefore, divorce is possible, and it also makes widow marriage possible.
Q. What are the major Muslim sects in India and do they share the same rituals?
Answer: The two major Muslim sects in India are the Shias and Sunnis. While there are differences in rituals between the sects, the defining features of Nikah are the same.
Q. Enumerate the defining features of Nikah.
Answer: The defining features of Nikah are:
- The groom
- The bride
- The Kazi
- Witnesses (two male or four female witnesses).
In the presence of these components, the bride and the groom are asked by the Kazi about their voluntary consent to the marriage. When they agree voluntarily, the marriage contract is sanctioned, which is called Nikahnama.
Q. Explain the concept of Mehr or bride-wealth in a Muslim marriage.
Answer: Mehr, or bride-wealth, is a part of the marriage contract in Nikah. It is agreed upon during the marriage ceremony and is given by the groom to the bride at the time of the marriage or later on. It is an essential element of the marriage contract and signifies the groom’s commitment and responsibility towards the bride.
Q. How is polygyny treated in Muslim marriages in India?
Answer: In Muslim marriages, a man can marry up to four wives. However, such polygyny is rare because the man is required to treat all his wives equally. The practice of polygyny imposes significant responsibilities and demands on the husband, making it less common. Hence, in practice, most Muslim marriages are monogamous.
Q. What are the two types of Muslim marriages, and how can an irregular marriage be regularized?
Answer: In Muslim tradition, there are two types of marriages: regular (Sahi) and irregular (Fasid). Irregular marriages occur in such cases as the absence of witnesses, like the fifth marriage of a man, differences in religion, marrying a woman undergoing Iddad (a period of waiting after divorce or widowhood), and marrying during pilgrimage. However, these irregular marriages can be made regular through prescribed procedures, which typically involve rectifying the irregularities that made the marriage irregular in the first place.
Q. How is marriage perceived among Christians in India?
Answer: Christians believe that marriage is not only a social contract but also a sacrament. It is not considered as a duty, as it is in Hinduism. Though all Christians consider marriage as sacred, some Christian denominations permit divorce. Monogamy is the general norm among all Christians, and widow re-marriage is permitted among all Christians.
Q. Discuss the similarities and differences in the perception and practice of marriage among Muslims and Christians in India.
Answer: Both Muslims and Christians in India view marriage as a sacred bond but they conceptualize it differently. For Muslims, marriage, known as Nikah, is considered as a civil contract with religious rituals, while for Christians, it is seen not only as a social contract but also a sacrament.
In terms of practices, there are distinct differences between the two. In Muslim marriages, the key participants include the groom, the bride, the Kazi, and the witnesses. The bride and the groom are asked by the Kazi in the presence of the witnesses about their voluntary consent to the marriage. When they voluntarily agree, the marriage contract, known as the Nikahnama, is sanctioned. A part of the contract is the agreement about Mehr, or bride-wealth, which the groom gives to the bride at the time of the marriage or later on. On the other hand, Christian marriages in India follow the rituals based on their respective denomination’s customs, and do not involve a formal contract or Mehr.
Polygamy is permitted in Islam, allowing a Muslim man to marry up to four wives, but such polygyny is rare due to the requirement to treat all wives equally. On the other hand, monogamy is the general norm among all Christians.
Divorce is permissible in both religions, but the process and acceptance can vary. In Islam, divorce can be obtained through a prescribed procedure, as marriage is a contract. However, among Christians, while marriage is considered sacred, some denominations do permit divorce.
Widow re-marriage is permissible in both religions. In terms of social customs, they vary regionally and are often shared with the Hindu population of the region.
In conclusion, while both religions view marriage as an important institution, the perception and practices surrounding it vary significantly, influenced by religious doctrines, social norms, and regional customs.
Q. What are some of the essential conditions for a valid marriage?
Answer: The essential conditions for a valid marriage are that both partners must be adults and capable of contracting marriage. The choice of partners may be done by parents or elders, but the consent of both the boy and the girl is essential.
Q. Can you outline the usual procedure of a Christian marriage in India?
Answer:
- The first step is the production of a character certificate, followed by an engagement where the boy and the girl declare their intention to marry.
- An application is submitted to the church pastor or priest three weeks before the marriage.
- The priest or pastor announces the proposed marriage and invites objections. This is known as the reading of the banns. If there are no objections, the date of the marriage is fixed.
- The marriage ceremony takes place in the church, in the presence of people and two witnesses. The bridegroom and the bride declare their consent, exchange their marriage vows, and usually, wedding rings. The priest or the pastor acts as the Registrar of Marriage under the provisions of the Indian Christian Marriage Act of 1872 and records the marriage in the Register of Marriages maintained in the church.
Q. What is the role of the priest or pastor in the Indian Christian marriage procedure?
Answer: The priest or pastor plays a crucial role in the Indian Christian marriage procedure. They receive the application for marriage, announce the proposed marriage inviting any objections (known as the reading of the banns), and if there are no objections, fix the date of the marriage. During the ceremony, they oversee the declaration of consent, the exchange of marriage vows and usually, wedding rings. They also act as the Registrar of Marriage according to the Indian Christian Marriage Act of 1872 and record the marriage in the Register of Marriages maintained in the church.
Q. What is the significance of the Indian Christian Marriage Act of 1872?
Answer: The Indian Christian Marriage Act of 1872 is significant because it provides the legal provisions and guidelines for Christian marriages in India. Under this Act, the priest or pastor acts as the Registrar of Marriage. They are responsible for recording the marriage in the Register of Marriages, which is maintained in the church. The Act provides a legal structure and recognition to Christian marriages, ensuring they are recognized by the law and the state.
Q. Can you elaborate on the concept of a joint family in India?
Answer: The joint family is an ideal pattern and cultural norm of family life in India. The structure and functions of a family can vary, but the joint family is often upheld as the ideal. Contrary to the nuclear family, the joint family comprises multiple generations living together, including grandparents, parents, and children. In the Indian context, the nuclear family or household is considered only a stage in the development cycle of the joint family. This is because households in India develop into joint and nuclear structures in a cyclical order. This indicates the dynamic nature of the family structure in India, where nuclear families can become joint families over time and vice versa.
Q. How does the Indian concept of a joint family differ from the concept of a nuclear family?
Answer: In India, the concept of a joint family differs significantly from the concept of a nuclear family. A nuclear family typically consists of a couple and their dependent children, while a joint family includes multiple generations living together, often including grandparents, parents, and children. The joint family is considered the ideal and cultural norm of family life in India. However, in the Indian context, the nuclear family or household is considered only a stage in the development cycle of the joint family. Households in India develop into joint and nuclear structures in a cyclical order. This indicates the dynamic nature of the family structure in India, where nuclear families can become joint families over time and vice versa.
Q. What is the definition of a joint family as per Irawati Karve?
Answer: Irawati Karve defines a joint family as a group of people who generally live under one roof, eat food cooked at one hearth, hold property in common, participate in common family worship and are related to each other as some kind of kindred.
Q. Can you elaborate on the structural features of a joint family?
Answer: The structural features of a joint family are as follows:
- Common residence (roof) and kitchen (hearth).
- Large size due to depth of generations; usually, there is a depth of three generations.
- Common property because the family as a whole owns the property.
Q. What are the functional elements of a joint family?
Answer: The functional elements of a joint family include the following:
- Common rituals and ceremonies, in accordance with caste norms and religious obligations.
- The role of Karta, who is usually the eldest male and exercises authority.
- Mutual obligations among the members which bind them with reciprocal relationships.
- A social system in which rights and duties are distributed among the members.
Q. Which communities in India traditionally have joint families?
Answer: The joint family has been the cultural norm and ideal pattern of family life in Indian society, found not only among the Hindus but also Muslims and Christians. It has been one of the pillars of Indian society along with the caste system and the village community.
Q. What are the factors that supported the traditional joint family?
Answer: The factors which supported the traditional joint family are the following:
- Filial devotion of the sons.
- Readiness of the members to help and support one another in economic matters.
- Lack of state-organized social security measures for the old people.
- The agricultural economy of India supports the joint family system.
Q. How has the joint family structure changed in modern times?
Answer: Structural changes in the joint family are seen in its break up into smaller nuclear households. This is due to various factors such as differential earnings of brothers generating tensions in the household, disinclination of the sons and their wives to share responsibilities, growth of individualism, and the development of the secondary and the tertiary sectors in the Indian economy.
Q. What functional changes have occurred in the joint family?
Answer: Functional changes in the joint family are observed in the following areas: wife-husband relations, with the wife playing a more active role, often at par with the husband; parent-children relationships that give importance to children; relationships between daughter-in-law and parents-in-law because of the changing role and status of women.
Q. How is the joint family perceived in present times, and which classes have embraced the nuclear family?
Answer: At present, the joint family as a cultural norm and as an ideal is generally accepted. However, the nuclear family is becoming popular among some classes, specifically the urban middle and professional classes. These classes have accepted the small family norm. Their families are small in size and economically stable because often both the parents are employed.
Q. What is the meaning of kinship and why is its study important?
Answer: Kinship means social relationship based on blood, marriage or adoption. The study of kinship is important because it provides the framework for social relationships beyond the family. It’s the product of two related institutions, namely, marriage and family.
Q. What are the types of kinship as defined by Irawati Karve?
Answer: According to Irawati Karve, there are four types of kinship organization in India based on geographical and linguistic differences. They are (1) northern, (2) central, (3) southern, and (4) eastern zones. These zones show differences in marriage rules and also in succession and inheritance.
Q. What do the terms ‘consanguinity’ and ‘affinity’ signify in relation to kinship?
Answer: In the context of kinship, ‘consanguinity’ refers to the relationship based on common blood, while ‘affinity’ signifies the relationship based on marriage.
Q. How are the Northern and Southern kinship systems in India differentiated?
Answer: The differences between the Northern and Southern zones are significant in terms of kinship systems. They show considerable variance in their marriage rules, and also in rules regarding succession and inheritance. The Northern and Southern kinship systems are the two common major systems of kinship in India.
Q. Can you expand on the changes in the joint family system in modern times?
Answer: The joint family system has undergone significant changes in modern times. The traditional joint family, characterized by common residence, large size due to depth of generations, and common property, is breaking up into smaller nuclear households. This is attributed to various factors:
i) Differential earnings of brothers have been a source of tension within the household. ii) Sons and their wives, in many instances, are disinclined to share responsibilities, leading to fragmentation of the joint family. iii) The growth of individualism has encouraged members to seek independence and personal space. iv) The development of the secondary and tertiary sectors in the Indian economy has necessitated relocation and mobility, thereby impacting the joint family structure.
As a result, the urban middle and professional classes are increasingly favoring nuclear families, characterized by smaller sizes and economic stability, often with both parents employed.
Q. Discuss the functional changes observed in the joint family system.
Answer: Functional changes in the joint family system are primarily seen in the evolving dynamics of relationships:
i) Wife-Husband Relations: Wives are playing a more active role, often on par with the husband, leading to a shift from the patriarchal structure to a more egalitarian one.
ii) Parent-Children Relationships: The importance of children has increased, and their needs and aspirations are considered and prioritized, unlike in traditional joint families where elders’ decisions were final.
iii) Relationships between Daughter-in-law and Parents-in-law: The role and status of women are changing, and they are no longer confined to traditional roles. This has led to changes in the dynamics between the daughter-in-law and parents-in-law.
These changes, coupled with the shift from a joint to a nuclear family structure, are redefining family life in contemporary times.
Q. How have the changes in the joint family structure and functions affected the societal norms in India?
Answer: The changes in the joint family structure and functions have significantly impacted societal norms in India. The shift from joint to nuclear families is changing the traditional family dynamics, with an increased focus on individual autonomy and a decrease in shared responsibilities. This shift is more prevalent in urban middle and professional classes who have accepted the small family norm, and whose families are often economically stable with both parents employed.
The changes in functional elements, such as the role of women and the importance of children, have also led to a shift in societal norms. Women are playing a more active role, and the needs and aspirations of children are being prioritized. These changes are breaking down traditional patriarchal norms and leading to more egalitarian relationships within families. While the joint family continues to be an ideal in Indian society, these changes reflect a society in transition.Despite these changes, the joint family remains an integral part of the social fabric in India, especially among certain communities and in rural areas where traditional norms and values continue to have a strong hold.
Q. What is the significance of studying kinship?
Answer: The study of kinship is significant as it provides a framework for understanding social relationships beyond the family. Kinship systems not only define relationships based on blood (consanguinity), marriage (affinity), or adoption, but they also establish societal norms, expectations, and obligations associated with these relationships.
Kinship systems are integral to the social structure and can influence aspects of social life ranging from marriage and inheritance rules to residence patterns and occupational roles. They can also provide a means of social security and support, especially in societies where state-organized support systems are limited.
In a country like India, with its cultural and geographical diversity, the study of kinship is particularly important due to the variety of kinship systems that exist. Understanding these systems can provide valuable insights into the social dynamics, cultural norms, and traditions of different regions and communities.
Q. Can you explain the four types of kinship organization in India as defined by Irawati Karve?
Answer: According to Irawati Karve, the four types of kinship organizations in India are based on geographical and linguistic differences. These include:
Northern: This zone has its unique kinship system which is influenced by the local cultural and social norms.
Central: The kinship system here is distinct and shaped by the customs and practices prevalent in this region.
Southern: The southern kinship system significantly differs from the northern one, particularly in terms of marriage rules and succession and inheritance laws.
Eastern: The kinship system in the eastern zone has its distinct characteristics and traditions.
Each of these kinship organizations has developed their unique norms and practices over time, influenced by factors such as language, culture, social structure, and geography.
Q. What are the differences between the Northern and Southern kinship systems in India?Answer: The Northern and Southern kinship systems in India have significant differences in terms of their marriage rules and laws regarding succession and inheritance. The Northern kinship system typically follows a patrilineal descent pattern and prefers cross-cousin marriages. The Southern kinship system, on the other hand, is more diverse and includes both patrilineal and matrilineal descent patterns. It also shows a preference for parallel cousin marriages in some communities. These differences reflect the cultural and social diversity of India, shaped by regional, linguistic, and historical factors.
Q. What are the basic kinship groups in North India and what is their role in marriage alliances?
Answer: In North India, the basic kinship groups are Kula, Gotra, and Jati. Kula and Gotra are exogamous units, meaning marriages occur outside these groups, while Jati is endogamous, signifying marriages occur within the group. A particular marriage alliance is seen as a way to extend kinship bonds by creating new kinship connections. These groups create a significant distance between the bride and the groom, leading to the bride arriving as a stranger in the groom’s house. This structure also creates a sharp distinction between the daughters and daughters-in-law of the village.
Q. How does the kinship system operate in South India?
Answer: In South India, there are both patrilineal and matrilineal communities. An example of a matrilineal community is that of the Nayars in Kerala. Marriage alliances in South India typically occur within a known circle, and there are preferred marriages like cross-cousin marriages and uncle-niece marriages. Unlike in the North, the bride is familiar with the family into which she is married, which serves to strengthen existing kinship bonds.
Q. What are the two important purposes that kinship serves?
Answer:
- Kinship provides a way for transmitting status and property from one generation to the next. This is the area of descent, which traces relationships through succeeding generations.
- It establishes and maintains effective social groups for cooperation and social behavior. It regulates social behavior related to birth, marriage, and death and indicates the expectations, rights, and duties that kinsmen have for one another.
Q. Can you explain the difference between patrilineal and matrilineal descent, providing examples of societies that follow these models?
Answer: In a patrilineal or agnatic system, descent is traced through the male line, from father to sons. This system is typical in many societies globally. On the other hand, in a matrilineal or uterine system, descent is traced through the female line, from mother to daughters. This kind of descent is found among the Khasis and Garos.
Q. Explain the concepts of lineage and clan in the context of unilineal descent.
Answer: Unilineal descent groups generally take the form of lineages and clans. A lineage is a group whose members trace common descent from an ancestor through known links. It is a direct and known chain of relationships. Conversely, a clan is usually composed of several lineages that claim descent from a common ancestor, but they cannot trace the precise links or connections between them. The members of a clan share a supposed common ancestor, although the actual links between them are often lost in the mists of time.
Q. What is the double or duo lineal or bilineal system of descent?
Answer: In the double or duo lineal or bilineal system, descent is traced through both the male and female lines. Sometimes descent is traced through the male line for some purposes and through the female line for other purposes. This system allows for more flexibility and inclusivity in tracing ancestry and preserving family ties.
Q. How does kinship continue to play a significant role in contemporary India?
Answer: Despite modernization and social changes, kinship continues to be an integral part of life for the majority of Indians. People rely on their kinsmen in times of crises, in finding a job in a town or city, in finding marriage partners, and so on. For the majority of Indians, kinship provides the framework of social and cultural life. It creates a support network that facilitates economic and social mobility and ensures the continuation of traditions and cultural practices. It forms the backbone of the socio-cultural fabric of India, reinforcing community ties and promoting mutual assistance and cooperation.
Q. What is the role of kinship in the transmission of status and property?
Answer: Kinship plays a crucial role in the transmission of status and property from one generation to the next. This function is particularly visible in the area of descent, which traces relationships through succeeding generations. Depending on whether the society is patrilineal, matrilineal, or bilineal, the inheritance of property and status passes down through the male line, the female line, or both. This mechanism ensures continuity and stability within the family and society, preserving social order and maintaining balance among different kinship groups.
Q. How does kinship regulate social behaviour?
Answer: Kinship regulates social behaviour by establishing and maintaining effective social groups for cooperation and social behaviour. It governs social behaviour related to key life events such as birth, marriage, and death. Furthermore, it sets the expectations, rights, and duties that kinsmen have for one another, providing a guideline for how individuals should interact with each other within the kinship group. These norms of behaviour, framed by kinship, help in maintaining harmony and order within the community.
Q. Describe the distinct features of marriage alliances in North and South India.
Answer: In North India, marriage alliances often result in significant distance between the bride and the groom. The bride comes to the groom’s house as a stranger, which often leads to a sharp distinction between the daughters and daughters-in-law of the village. However, these marriages serve to extend kinship bonds by forging new relationships.
In contrast, in South India, marriage alliances typically occur within a known circle. Preferred marriages, like cross-cousin marriages and uncle-niece marriages, are common. The bride is usually familiar with the family she is marrying into, which strengthens existing kinship bonds. In South India, there are both patrilineal and matrilineal communities, with a well-known example of a matrilineal community being the Nayars in Kerala.
66. Can you explain the distinction between exogamous and endogamous kinship units, providing examples from North India?
Answer: Exogamous kinship units are those in which marriages occur outside the group. In North India, Kula and Gotra are exogamous units, meaning individuals are expected to marry outside their own Kula or Gotra. On the other hand, endogamous units are those in which marriages occur within the group. In the same region, Jati is an endogamous unit, where individuals are usually expected to marry within their own Jati. These rules of exogamy and endogamy play a significant role in structuring society and maintaining social order.
Extra/additional MCQs
1. Which social institution sanctions the relationship of a man and woman as husband and wife?
A. Kinship B. Family C. Marriage D. Friendship
Answer: C. Marriage
2. What is the primary basis for founding a family in most societies?
A. Kinship B. Friendship C. Marriage D. Communal living
Answer: C. Marriage
3. What is the general understanding of marriage in tribal communities?
A. A religious ceremony B. A legal contract C. A social contract D. An economic agreement
Answer: C. A social contract
4. Which tribes in India practice polygyny?
A. Todas B. Khasis C. Nagas D. Santhals
Answer: C. Nagas
5. Which form of marriage involves a woman marrying the younger brother of her dead husband?
A. Polygyny B. Polyandry C. Sororate D. Levirate
Answer: D. Levirate
6. Among which tribes is there a preference for cross cousin marriages?
A. Nagas B. Baigas C. Khasis D. Todas
Answer: C. Khasis
Q. In which form of marriage does a man marry his wife’s sister after his wife’s death?
A. Polygyny B. Polyandry C. Sororate D. Levirate
Answer: C. Sororate
Q. Which form of marriage is followed by most tribes in India?
A. Polygyny B. Polyandry C. Monogamy D. Levirate
Answer: C. Monogamy
Q. Are divorces permitted in tribal communities if the aims of marriage are not fulfilled?
A. Yes B. No C. Only in some tribes D. Only in extreme circumstances
Answer: A. Yes
Q. Which tribes in India practice polyandry?
A. Khasis B. Gonds C. Nagas D. Todas
Answer: D. Todas
Q. Which tribal community practices Marriage by negotiation?
A. Kuki tribes B. Bhils C. Muria Gonds D. Not specified
Answer: D. Not specified
Q. What is the practice of living with a potential spouse for a period of time to determine compatibility known as?
A. Marriage by negotiation B. Marriage by probation C. Marriage by service D. Marriage by exchange
Answer: B. Marriage by probation
Q. Among which tribal community is Marriage by probation found?
A. Kuki tribes B. Bhils C. Muria Gonds D. Santhals
Answer: A. Kuki tribes
Q. In which type of marriage does a man surprise a woman and apply a marriage mark on her?
A. Physical capture B. Ceremonial capture C. Marriage by service D. Marriage by trial
Answer: B. Ceremonial capture
Q. Which tribal communities practice Marriage by physical capture?
A. Bhils, Muria Gonds, Badagas B. Santhals C. Gonds, Baigas D. Muria Gonds, Baigas, Koya, Saora
Answer: A. Bhils, Muria Gonds, Badagas
Q. What is the practice of the bridegroom living in the bride’s house before marriage and rendering service known as?
A. Marriage by negotiation B. Marriage by service C. Marriage by exchange D. Marriage by elopement
Answer: B. Marriage by service
Q. Which tribal communities practice Marriage by service?
A. Kuki tribes B. Bhils C. Gonds and Baigas D. Muria Gonds, Baigas, Koya, Saora
Answer: C. Gonds and Baigas
Q. What is the exchange of a son and daughter between two families for marriage known as?
A. Marriage by negotiation B. Marriage by exchange C. Marriage by elopement D. Marriage by intrusion
Answer: B. Marriage by exchange
Q. In which tribal community is the practice of elopement known as Raji Khushi?
A. Kuki tribes B. Bhils C. Hos D. Oraons
Answer: C. Hos
Q. Which type of marriage involves a woman living in a man’s house until he accepts her as his wife?
A. Marriage by negotiation B. Marriage by exchange C. Marriage by elopement D. Marriage by intrusion
Answer: D. Marriage by intrusion
Q. What is the Hindu term for marriage?
A. Vivaha B. Samskara C. Grihastha D. Rina
Answer: A. Vivaha
Q. How many basic aims, or purusharthas, are there in Hinduism?
A. Two B. Three C. Four D. Five
Answer: C. Four
Q. What is the only samskara for a woman in Hinduism?
A. Upanayana B. Marriage C. Grihastha D. Moksha
Answer: B. Marriage
Q. Which stage of life is entered through marriage in Hinduism?
A. Brahmacharya B. Grihastha C. Vanaprastha D. Sanyasa
Answer: B. Grihastha
Q. How many rinas or religious debts do Hindus believe in?
A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four
Answer: C. Three
Q. What is the basic rule of endogamy in Hinduism?
A. Caste endogamy B. Gotra endogamy C. Pinda endogamy D. Varna endogamy
Answer: A. Caste endogamy
Q. What type of exogamy prohibits marriage with a person of the same gotra or pinda?
A. Caste exogamy B. Sagotra exogamy C. Sapinda exogamy D. Varna exogamy
Answer: B. Sagotra exogamy
Q. Which purushartha relates to fulfilling physical desires?
A. Dharma B. Artha C. Kama D. Moksha
Answer: C. Kama
Q. Which religious debt is repaid by begetting a son in Hinduism?
A. Ancestors B. Gods C. Teachers D. None of the above
Answer: A. Ancestors
Q. Which religious obligation can only be fulfilled by a Hindu grihastha with his wife?
A. Performing sacrifices B. Pursuing moksha C. Studying the Vedas D. Becoming a sanyasi
Answer: A. Performing sacrifices
Q. What is the term for a marriage in Hinduism where the ritual status of a man is higher than that of his prospective wife?
A. Pratilom B. Anulom C. Arsha D. Gandharva
Answer: B. Anulom
Q. In which form of Hindu marriage is the bride given to the priest officiating at the marriage ceremony?
A. Gandharva B. Daiva C. Prajaptya D. Rakshasa
Answer: B. Daiva
Q. Which form of marriage in Hinduism involves the bridegroom giving money and other things to the bride’s family?
A. Asura B. Gandharva C. Arsha D. Brahma
Answer: A. Asura
Q. What term is used for a marriage in Hinduism where the ritual status of a woman is higher than that of her prospective husband?
A. Hypergamy B. Hypogamy C. Gandharva D. Brahma
Answer: B. Hypogamy
Q. Which form of marriage in Hinduism involves the forcible abduction of the girl after defeating or killing her kinsmen?
A. Arsha B. Prajaptya C. Rakshasa D. Gandharva
Answer: C. Rakshasa
Q. In which form of Hindu marriage does the father give his daughter to a man from whom he has received a cow and a bull, or two pairs as bride price?
A. Brahma B. Daiva C. Arsha D. Prajaptya
Answer: C. Arsha
Q. In Hinduism, which form of marriage is considered marriage ‘by purchase’?
A. Gandharva B. Asura C. Rakshasa D. Prajaptya
Answer: B. Asura
Q. Which form of marriage in Hinduism is initiated by a girl and boy who are in love and does not involve the father of the bride?
A. Gandharva B. Daiva C. Asura D. Brahma
Answer: A. Gandharva
Q. In Hinduism, which marriage form involves marriage by stealth of a girl who is sleeping or intoxicated?
A. Brahma B. Daiva C. Paishacha D. Gandharva
Answer: C. Paishacha
Q. Which Hindu marriage form is defined by the father of the bride giving his daughter, after decking her with costly garments and jewels, to a man of good behaviour and learned in the Vedas?
A. Brahma B. Daiva C. Arsha D. Prajaptya
Answer: A. Brahma
Q. What is the term for marriage among Muslims?
A. Puja B. Anand Karaj C. Nikah D. Vivaah
Answer: C. Nikah
Q. How many major Muslim sects are there in India?
A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four
Answer: B. Two
Q. Who sanctions the Muslim marriage contract in the presence of witnesses?
A. Priest B. Rabbi C. Kazi D. Pundit
Answer: C. Kazi
Q. What is the term for the marriage contract in a Muslim marriage?
A. Dowry B. Nikahnama C. Saptapadi D. Mehr
Answer: B. Nikahnama
Q. What is the bride-wealth given by the groom to the bride at the time of marriage or later on in a Muslim marriage called?
A. Dowry B. Saptapadi C. Nikahnama D. Mehr
Answer: D. Mehr
Q. How many wives can a Muslim man marry according to the religious rules?
A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four
Answer: D. Four
Q. What are the two types of marriages in Muslim tradition?
A. Valid and Invalid B. Sahi and Haram C. Sahi and Fasid D. Nikah and Mehr
Answer: C. Sahi and Fasid
Q. How do Christians in India view marriage?
A. As a duty B. As a sacrament C. As a contract D. As an obligation
Answer: B. As a sacrament
Q. What is the general norm of marriage among all Christians?
A. Polygamy B. Polyandry C. Monogamy D. Polygyny
Answer: C. Monogamy
Q. Is widow re-marriage permitted among all Christians in India?
A. Yes B. No C. Sometimes D. Only in some sects
Answer: A. Yes
Q. What is the first step in the usual procedure of a Christian marriage in India?
A. Engagement B. Submission of application C. Reading of banns D. Production of character certificate
Answer: D. Production of character certificate
Q. Who announces the proposed Christian marriage and invites objections in India?
A. Parents B. Elders C. Pastor or Priest D. Registrar of Marriage
Answer: C. Pastor or Priest
Q. What is the announcement about the proposed marriage called?
A. Engagement B. Reading of the banns C. Consent declaration D. Marriage registration
Answer: B. Reading of the banns
Q. Under which Act does the pastor or priest act as the Registrar of Marriage in India?
A. Indian Marriage Act B. Christian Marriage Act of 1872 C. Indian Christian Marriage Act of 1872 D. Marriage Registration Act of India
Answer: C. Indian Christian Marriage Act of 1872
Q. What is the ideal pattern and cultural norm of family life in India?
A. Nuclear family B. Extended family C. Single-parent family D. Joint family
Answer: D. Joint family
Q. In the Indian context, what is considered only a stage in the development cycle of the joint family?
A. Extended family B. Single-parent family C. Nuclear family D. Parent-child family
Answer: C. Nuclear family
Q. Who can choose the partners in a valid marriage in India?
A. Only the boy and the girl B. Only the parents or elders C. The boy, the girl, parents, or elders D. Only the church pastor or priest
Answer: C. The boy, the girl, parents, or elders
Q. How many witnesses are required at the time of the Christian marriage ceremony in the church?
A. One B. Two C. Three D. Four
Answer: B. Two
Q. What do the bride and groom exchange during the Christian marriage ceremony?
A. Gifts B. Promises C. Vows and rings D. Character certificates
Answer: C. Vows and rings
Q. Where is the marriage recorded according to the Indian Christian Marriage Act of 1872?
A. In the government office B. In the marriage certificate C. In the Register of Marriages maintained in the church D. In the local court
Answer: C. In the Register of Marriages maintained in the church
Q. According to Irawati Karve, how many types of kinship organization exist in India?
A. Two B. Three C. Four D. Five
Answer: C. Four
Q. Who usually holds the role of authority in a traditional joint family?
A. Karta B. Mother C. Youngest son D. Daughter-in-law
Answer: A. Karta
Q. What are joint families in India traditionally characterized by?
A. Individualism B. Common property C. Nuclear structure D. Isolation
Answer: B. Common property
Q. Which classes in India are more likely to favor nuclear families?
A. Rural and agricultural B. Urban middle and professional C. Traditional and religious D. Lower and upper
Answer: B. Urban middle and professional
Q. In modern times, which sector’s development has contributed to the break up of joint families in India?
A. Primary B. Secondary C. Tertiary D. Quaternary
Answer: C. Tertiary
Q. Which of the following factors has NOT contributed to changes in the traditional joint family structure in India?
A. Differential earnings of brothers B. Disinclination of sons to share responsibilities C. Growth of individualism D. Increasing state-organized social security measures
Answer: D. Increasing state-organized social security measures
Q. In the context of kinship, what does ‘consanguinity’ signify?
A. Relationship based on marriage B. Relationship based on adoption C. Relationship based on common blood D. Relationship based on friendship
Answer: C. Relationship based on common blood
Q. According to Irawati Karve’s classification, which zone’s kinship system in India has significant differences in marriage rules and succession and inheritance laws?
A. Northern B. Central C. Southern D. Eastern
Answer: C. Southern
Q. Who are playing a more active role in modern joint family systems, often at par with the husband?
A. Children B. Sons C. Wives D. Parents-in-law
Answer: C. Wives
Q. In the context of kinship, what does ‘affinity’ signify?
A. Relationship based on common blood B. Relationship based on marriage C. Relationship based on adoption D. Relationship based on friendship
Answer: B. Relationship based on marriage
Q. What are the basic kinship groups in North India?
A. Jati, Kula, Gotra B. Kula, Nayars, Jati C. Gotra, Nayars, Kula D. Jati, Patrilineal, Matrilineal
Answer: A. Jati, Kula, Gotra
Q. Which kinship group in North India is endogamous?
A. Kula B. Gotra C. Jati D. Nayars
Answer: C. Jati
Q. Which community in South India is known to be matrilineal?
A. Khasis B. Jati C. Nayars D. Garos
Answer: C. Nayars
Q. What type of marriages are preferred in South India?
A. Cross-cousin B. Uncle-niece C. Both A and B D. None of the above
Answer: C. Both A and B
Q. If descent is traced through only the male line, what type of descent is it known as?
A. Matrilineal B. Uterine C. Patrilineal D. Bilineal
Answer: C. Patrilineal
Q. Which community in India practices matrilineal descent?
A. Nayars B. Khasis and Garos C. Kula D. Gotra
Answer: B. Khasis and Garos
Q. In a unilineal descent system, what is a group whose members trace common descent from an ancestor through known links known as?
A. Clan B. Lineage C. Kula D. Gotra
Answer: B. Lineage
Q. In a bilineal system, through which lines is descent traced?
A. Only male B. Only female C. Both male and female D. Neither male nor female
Answer: C. Both male and female
Q. Which system of descent allows for more flexibility and inclusivity in tracing ancestry and preserving family ties?
A. Patrilineal B. Matrilineal C. Bilineal D. None of the above
Answer: C. Bilineal
80. What is the primary role of kinship in contemporary India?
A. Transmission of property B. Regulation of social behaviour C. Both A and B D. None of the above
Answer: C. Both A and B
