Intelligence: NBSE Class 12 Education answers, notes

Summary

Intelligence is the way a person understands and deals with the world. It is the ability to learn new things, adjust to different situations, and solve problems. Psychologists have defined it in several ways, including the ability to adapt, the ability to learn, and the ability to think using ideas and symbols.

There are different kinds of intelligence. Abstract intelligence is being good with words and numbers. Mechanical intelligence is the skill of working with tools and objects. Social intelligence is the ability to understand and get along with other people. One psychologist, Howard Gardner, suggested there are many types of intelligence. These include being smart with language, logic, music, body movements, nature, understanding others, and understanding yourself.

Some ideas suggest intelligence has two parts. One part is a general intelligence, called the ‘g-factor’, which is like a main power source for all mental tasks. The other part is specific abilities, or ‘s-factors’, which are like special tools for certain jobs like art or math. Another idea is that intelligence is made of many separate abilities working together. Intelligence is partly inherited from parents, but it is also shaped by a person’s environment and experiences.

We can measure intelligence using special tests. Some tests are given to one person at a time, while others are for large groups. Verbal tests use words, while non-verbal and performance tests use pictures, puzzles, and blocks. These are helpful for young children or people who have difficulty with language.

The result of these tests is often given as an IQ, or Intelligence Quotient, score. IQ compares a person’s mental age with their actual age. Mental age shows the level of a person’s performance on the test. An average IQ score is 100. These tests can be useful in schools for guiding students. However, they have limitations. They may not be perfectly reliable, can be influenced by a person’s background, and do not measure a person’s complete abilities or creativity. When many people take an IQ test, their scores often form a bell-shaped curve, with most people scoring near the average.

Textual

Very Short Answer Questions

1. What is intelligence?

Answer: In general terms, intelligence means the manner in which an individual deals with facts and situations. Intelligence is defined in terms of observable objective behaviour. Most definitions refer to an individual’s capacity to learn and to knowledge that has already been acquired. Many definitions also suggest that the ability to adapt to the environment is a sign of intelligence.

2. Who proposed the theory of intelligence?

Answer: The English psychologist, Charles Spearman, proposed his theory of intelligence called the two-factor theory in 1904.

3. Name the theory which can be used to construct of a set of ability tests.

Answer: The Two-factor theory can be used to guide and construct a set of ability tests.

4. Write the formula to find IQ.

Answer: The formula to find IQ is:
IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) x 100

5. In which field do girls excel?

Answer: Girls excel in materials that deal more directly with humanities.

6. Why do we multiply the formula of IQ by 100?

Answer: The formula of IQ is multiplied by 100 in order to remove the decimal point.

7. Write two definitions to prove that intelligence is an ability to learn.

Answer: Two definitions that prove intelligence is an ability to learn are:

According to Buckingham, intelligence is the learning ability.
According to Gardner, intelligence is the ability to respond successfully to new situations and the capacity to learn from one’s past experiences.

8. Write the definition of intelligence according to Binet.

Answer: According to Alfred Binet, intelligence is the ability of an individual to direct his behaviour towards a goal.

Short Answer Questions

1. In defining intelligence Thurstone used the letter ‘S’. What is the meaning of ‘S’ according to him?

Answer: In defining intelligence, Thurstone used the letter ‘S’ to mean ‘space factor’.

2. What is the general belief about inheritance of intelligence?

Answer: The general belief about the inheritance of intelligence is that the amount of intelligence a person possesses is inherited and fixed. It is also believed that the growth of intelligence stops and it reaches its limit at the age of sixteen.

3. What is the relevance of Spearman’s two-factor theory?

Answer: Spearman’s two-factor theory gives a better insight to the teacher about the nature of intelligence. It explains that the general ability (‘G’ factor) and specific abilities (‘S’ factor) differ from individual to individual. The ‘S’ factor can be modified by learning or habitual training. The theory suggests that a child requires different amounts of ‘G’ and ‘S’ factors for achieving success in different subjects, and that a high quality of ‘G’ factor is required for success in life. This theory could also be used to guide and construct a set of ability tests.

4. What is the role of financial status in influencing intelligence?

Answer: The financial status of parents and of other adults in the neighbourhood environment can influence intelligence by providing for a child’s poor, relatively meagre, or an extremely rich series of experiences. However, drive and motivation can operate to overcome social and economic handicaps.

5. Write the characteristics of ‘G’ factor.

Answer: The characteristics of the ‘G’ factor are:

It has universal inborn ability.
It has general mental energy.
It is constant.
The amount of ‘G’ differs from individual to individual.
It is used in every activity of life.
Greater the ‘G’ in an individual, greater is his success in life.

6. What are the four basic attributes of Anarchic Theory?

Answer: The Anarchic or Multifactor theory was put forward by E.L. Thorndike, who distinguished four basic attributes of intelligence:

Level: The level of intelligence is proportional to the level of difficulty of a problem solved. It cannot be measured in perfect isolation.
Range: It refers to the number of problems of a given degree that one can solve. An individual having a certain level of intelligence should be able to solve the whole range of problems at that level.
Area: Area counts the total number of situations at each level through which the individual is able to respond.
Speed: This means the quickness on speed with which a problem is solved.

7. Describe the type of Intelligence test you can use to test the intelligence of illiterate and language handicapped children. Give two examples.

Answer: To test the intelligence of illiterate and language handicapped children, a Performance Test can be used. These tests are designed to test problem-solving ability using certain objects such as pictures and blocks, instead of words. Two examples of such tests are Kohl’s Block Design test and The Cube Construction Tests.

8. What is the shape of a graph plotted between population and IQ score?

Answer: The shape of a graph plotted between population and IQ score is a bell-shaped distribution.

9. Explain the meaning and nature of intelligence.

Answer: In general terms, intelligence means the manner in which an individual deals with facts and situations. It is defined in terms of observable objective behaviour, an individual’s capacity to learn, knowledge that has already been acquired, and the ability to adapt to the environment.

The nature of intelligence can be understood through the following points:

Intelligence is inherited: The amount of intelligence that a person possesses is inherited and fixed. The general belief is that the growth of intelligence stops and it reaches its limit at the age of sixteen.
Intelligence is influenced by environment factors: A poor environment can retard the development of intelligence. Heredity provides the physical body to be developed with certain inherent capabilities, while the environment provides for the maturation and training of the organism.
Intelligence helps in adjustment and inventions: An intelligent person has the ability to adjust himself to the changing circumstances with ease, efficiency, and speed and can cope with new situations very successfully.
Intelligence has no sex differences: Research studies show that the difference in sex does not contribute towards a difference in intelligence, though on scientific items of intelligence tests, boys may show a slight superiority in questions involving mathematical material and scientific concepts, and girls may excel in materials that deal more directly with humanities.
Intelligence has no racial or cultural differences: The results of earlier studies proved that intelligence is not the birthright of any particular race or group. The ‘bright’ and the ‘dull’ can be found in any race, caste, or cultural group.
Intelligence is very much related to social and economic conditions: Family conditions, including the financial status of parents, can influence a child’s behaviour and attitudes by providing for a poor, meagre, or extremely rich series of experiences.

10. Explain the different types of intelligence tests with examples.

Answer: The general intelligence tests have been classified into three groups: Individual, Group, and Performance tests.

Individual Test: This test is administered to only one individual at a time by a trained psychologist. These tests cover the age group from 2 years to 18 years. Examples include The Binet Simon tests, Revised tests by Terman, Mental Scholastic Tests of Burt, and the Weschler test.

Group Test: These tests are meant for assessing the intelligence of a large number of individuals in one sitting. They can be verbal or non-verbal. Examples include The Army Alpha and Beta test, Terman’s group tests, and Otis Self administrative tests.

Performance Test: These tests are designed to test problem-solving ability using objects such as pictures and blocks, instead of words. They are especially useful for young children, illiterates, and persons with speech defects. Examples include Kohl’s Block Design test, The Cube Construction Tests, and The Pass Along Tests.

11. What are the characteristics of ‘s’ factor in the two-factor theory?

Answer: The characteristics of the ‘s’ factor are:

It is learned and acquired in the environment.
It varies from activity to activity in the same individual.
Individuals differ in the amount of ‘S’ ability.

12. Give a brief description of a ‘Group test’.

Answer: Group intelligence tests are meant for assessing the intelligence of a large number of individuals in one sitting. These tests had their birth in America when the intelligence of the recruits who joined the army in the First World War was to be calculated. There are two kinds of group intelligence tests: verbal and non-verbal. Examples include the Army Alpha and Beta test and Terman’s group tests.

13. How can we calculate intelligence quotient of a person?

Answer: We can calculate the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) of a person by expressing intelligence as the ratio of the mental age (M.A.) with the chronological age (C.A.). The mental age is divided by the chronological age, and the quotient is multiplied by 100 to remove the decimal point. The formula is:
IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100

14. Explain ‘intelligence’.

Answer: In general terms, intelligence is the manner in which an individual deals with facts and situations. It is defined by observable objective behaviour, an individual’s capacity to learn, knowledge that has already been acquired, and the ability to adapt to the environment.

Psychologists have suggested various definitions that can be classified into groups:

Ability to Adjust: This group of definitions sees intelligence as general and mental adaptability to new problems and situations of life. For example, Alfred Binet defined it as “the ability of an individual to direct his behaviour towards a goal”.
Ability to Learn: This group of definitions stresses the ability to learn. For instance, Buckingham stated, “Intelligence is the learning ability”.
Ability to do Abstract Reasoning: This group defines intelligence as the ability to carry on abstract thinking, which implies the effective use of ideas and efficiency in dealing with symbols. L. M. Terman said, “An individual is intelligent in proportion as he/she is able to carry on abstract thinking”.

Psychologists also distinguish between different kinds of intelligence:

Abstract intelligence: It is the ability to understand and deal with verbal and mathematical symbols.
Mechanical intelligence: It is the ability to understand and deal with things and objects.
Social intelligence: It is the ability to understand and deal with persons and to apply psychological principles of human relationship.

Long Answer Questions

1. Write short notes on the following:

(a) Uses of intelligence tests
(b) Intelligent quotient
(c) Performance test of intelligence

Answer: (a) Uses of intelligence tests: Intelligence tests in schools are very important for the students. The uses of these tests are given below:

For Classification: In schools, these tests are useful to categorise the students. This classification is done on the basis of intelligence. The classes of the students with higher intelligence can be arranged separately from that of lower intelligence separately. In this way the teaching-learning can be made more effective.
For Guidance Purposes: Intelligence tests are needed for educational and vocational guidance to the students. On the basis of these tests, it is possible to provide proper guidance to them so that they may be able to select the courses of their choice.
For Selection Purposes: Intelligence tests are held for selecting various courses, subjects, scholarships, or co-curricular activities. Children are selected on the basis of their IQ. In most of the courses the use of intelligence test is unavoidable.
To Know the Individuals: The intelligence tests are used to know the individuals and their potentialities. For child-centered education, it is essential to know the children and the intelligence tests. These tests are of immense importance to assess the overall child personality.
To Establish Aspiration Level: On the basis of results of the intelligence tests, the aspiration levels of the individuals can be established. The establishment of higher aspiration of persons with lower intelligence would be an injustice with the person. In the same way for persons with higher intelligence, lower aspiration level would be improper.
For Promotions: It is always proper to use the tests to promote students to the next classes. In the vocational fields, the use of these tests is always advantageous so that the person may be promoted according to his/her abilities.
For Research Purpose: Intelligence tests are used for many important research studies too.

(b) Intelligent quotient: In 1912, William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ). Intelligence quotient represents the degree of brightness possessed by an individual. It is a measure of a person’s intellectual development relative to people of her/his age group. It expresses intelligence as the ratio of the mental age with the chronological age. When the mental age is divided by the chronological age and the quotient is multiplied by 100, the result is the IQ. The fraction is multiplied by 100 in order to remove the decimal point and find the IQ. The formula of IQ is as given below:
IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100

For example, a child who is 4 years old but possesses a mental age (M.A.) of 5 years, his IQ will be calculated with the help of the following equation:
IQ = 5/4 × 100 = 125
The IQ of this child shows that he/she is an extraordinary child.

A value of 100 is given when mental age is equal to chronological age. Thus, if the M.A. is above the Chronological Age (C.A.), the IQ will be above 100. If the M.A. is less than the C.A., the resulting IQ will be less than 100. The scale has the same meaning from one age to another. IQ may also be regarded as an index of brightness.

(c) Performance test of intelligence: Performance tests are designed to test problem-solving ability using certain objects such as pictures and blocks, instead of words. These tests are especially useful for young children, illiterates, persons with speech defects, and persons who do not have proficiency in language. Some of the famous tests are Kohl’s Block Design test, The Cube Construction Tests, and The Pass Along Tests.

Performance tests are useful for those who have language handicaps for the following reasons:

They may belong to any foreign language speaking groups.
They may be illiterates not knowing how to read and write.
They may have difficulties in reading, writing, and listening due to defects in their sense organs (Persons like deaf, dumb, etc.).
They may be younger children who are not yet able to read and write well.
They may be mentally retarded or mentally deficient children and therefore, are very slow in grasping and responding to the verbal items.
They may belong to an unprivileged class or state of the society and hence have got limited education opportunities.

Non-verbal and performance tests are more or less language and culture-free and hence can be used for cross-cultural and linguistic study of intelligence. They can also prove useful in the efforts to determine aptitude and promise in shop work, mechanical jobs, etc.

2. What are the types of intelligence as described by Gardner?

Answer: According to Gardner, all human beings possess at least eight intelligences. Intelligence is not a single entity; rather distinct types of intelligences exist. Each type of intelligence is an independent one. The multiple intelligences as classified by Gardner can be explained in the following terms:

Linguistic (skills involved in the production and use of language): It is the capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s thinking and understand others.
Logical-Mathematical (skills in scientific thinking and problem solving): It is the ability to think logically and critically.
Spatial (skills in forming visual images and patterns): It refers to the abilities involved in forming, using, and transforming mental images.
Musical (sensitivity to musical rhythms and patterns): It is the capacity to produce, create, and manipulate musical patterns.
Bodily-Kinesthetic (using whole or portions of the body flexibly and creatively): This consists of the use of the whole body or portions of it for display or construction of products and problem solving.
Naturalistic (sensitivity to the features of the natural world): This involves complete awareness of our relationship with the natural world.
Interpersonal (sensitivity to subtle aspects of others’ behaviours): This is the skill of understanding the motives, feelings, and behaviours of other people so as to bond into a comfortable relationship with others.
Intrapersonal (awareness of one’s own feelings, motives, and desires): This refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations and using that knowledge to effectively relate to others.

3. Differentiate between verbal and non-verbal tests.

Answer: Verbal tests gave emphasis on linguistic ability and were loaded with verbal material, words, and numericals. A verbal group test requires an individual to read out certain problems and write out solutions to these problems.

Non-verbal tests were constructed to address the limitations of verbal tests, where persons with linguistic superiority had an advantage. Non-verbal group tests present similar problems as the verbal test but in a different way. The problems are presented in the form of pictures, diagrams, puzzles, and mazes. It does not require the individual to read or write, but only to be able to make a mark with a pencil. These tests are more or less language and culture-free and can be used for cross-cultural and linguistic study of intelligence.

4. What do you understand by non-verbal or performance test? Discuss in brief any Individual non-verbal test of intelligence.

Answer: Non-verbal or performance tests are designed to test problem-solving ability using objects such as pictures, diagrams, puzzles, mazes, and blocks, instead of words. These tests are especially useful for individuals who have language handicaps, such as young children, illiterates, persons with speech defects, or those who do not have proficiency in the language of the test.

An example of an individual non-verbal test is a performance test like the Kohl’s Block Design test. This test is designed to assess problem-solving ability using objects like blocks, rather than words. It is administered to one individual at a time, allowing a trained psychologist to establish close contact and observe the person’s approach to solving the task. Such tests are particularly useful for testing individuals who may have language handicaps for various reasons.

5. How can intelligence be measured if it is a ‘vague concept’?

Answer: Intelligence is a vague concept because it refers to unseen mental abilities. However, it can be measured by being inferred from a variety of elements, such as behaviour and the speed of doing things correctly.

Today, many intelligence tests are carried out which primarily measure:

Abstract intelligence (competence in dealing with symbols in a meaningful way).
Social intelligence.
Mechanical intelligence.

These general intelligence tests are classified into three groups: Individual, group, and performance tests, which can be further divided into verbal and non-verbal types. A trained psychologist administers these tests for a definite period and interprets the results to assess an individual’s intelligence.

6. What do you understand by the term ‘Mental Age’?

Answer: The term ‘Mental Age’ (M.A.) refers to a scale of units developed by Binet for categorising children of different abilities. A child’s intelligence is determined by the mental age level which he could attain on a test. For example, a mental age of 12 means that a student’s performance on an intelligence test equals the average performance level of a group of 12-year-olds.

If a child’s mental age is higher than their chronological age, they are described as a bright child. If a child’s mental age is lower than their chronological age, they are described as slow or retarded. Mental age is a simple and useful concept for interpreting intelligence, especially when dealing with children who differ in mental ability.

Additional

Extra Questions and Answers

1. What are the subjective tendencies that are the concern of psychology?

Answer: The subjective tendencies that are the concern of psychology are intelligence, attitude, aptitude, creativity, and interest.

2. How is intelligence defined in general terms?

Answer: In general terms, intelligence means the manner in which an individual deals with facts and situations. It is defined in terms of observable objective behaviour, and most definitions refer to an individual’s capacity to learn and to knowledge that has already been acquired. Many definitions also suggest that the ability to adapt to the environment is a sign of intelligence.

3. What is the role of education in the development of an individual?

Answer: In the development of an individual, the decisive role is played by education, which is purposeful, planned, professional, and institutionalised.

4. What is William James’s definition of intelligence?

Answer: According to William James, it is the ability to adjust oneself successfully to a relatively new situation.

5. How did J. Piaget define intelligence?

Answer: J. Piaget defined intelligence as an adaptation to the physical and social environment.

6. What is Freeman’s definition of intelligence?

Answer: According to Freeman, intelligence is represented in behaviour by the capacity of the individual to adjust himself/herself to new situations to solve new problems to learn.

7. What is Buckingham’s definition of intelligence?

Answer: According to Buckingham, intelligence is the learning ability.

8. What are the two abilities in Spearman’s early definition of intelligence?

Answer: In Spearman’s early definition, intelligence may be thought of in terms of two abilities: “g” or general and “s” or specific.

9. What is L. M. Terman’s definition of intelligence?

Answer: According to L. M. Terman, an individual is intelligent in proportion as he/she is able to carry on abstract thinking.

10. How did Henry Garrel define intelligence?

Answer: Henry Garrel defined intelligence as the ability demanded in the solution of problems which require the comprehension and use of symbols, i.e., words, numbers, diagrams, equations, and formula.

11. What is Wechsler’s definition of intelligence?

Answer: According to Wechsler, intelligence is the global or aggregate capacity of an individual to deal effectively with her/his environment.

12. What is abstract intelligence?

Answer: Abstract intelligence is the ability to understand and deal with verbal and mathematical symbols. It receives the greatest weight among the kinds of intelligence, and professional people are high in it.

13. What is mechanical intelligence?

Answer: Mechanical intelligence is the ability to understand and deal with things and objects and is more concerned with the skills of individuals. Industrialists and building traders are high in this intelligence.

14. What is social intelligence?

Answer: Social intelligence is the ability to understand and deal with persons and to apply psychological principles of human relationships. Salespersons, politicians, and diplomats possess this intelligence.

15. At what age is the growth of intelligence generally believed to stop?

Answer: The general belief is that the growth of intelligence stops and it reaches its limit at the age of sixteen.

16. What did Newman conclude about the variation in IQ?

Answer: In general, Newman concluded that variation in IQ was determined to be about 68 per cent by heredity and 32 per cent by environment.

17. What is the general finding regarding sex differences in intelligence?

Answer: Various studies have been conducted to find out whether women are more intelligent than men and vice versa, but in some cases, no significant difference has been found. Research studies also show that the average scores of the senses are strongly similar. Therefore, it is proper to think that difference in sex does not contribute towards a difference in intelligence.

18. Who proposed the Uni- or one-factor theory of intelligence?

Answer: The Unitary or Monarchy theory was put forward by Johnson and Stem.

19. Who proposed the two-factor theory of intelligence?

Answer: The English psychologist, Charles Spearman, proposed the two-factor theory of intelligence.

20. What are the two factors in Spearman’s theory?

Answer: According to Spearman’s theory, intellectual abilities are comprised of two factors: the general ability known as the G-factor and specific abilities known as the S-factor.

21. Who proposed the Anarchic or Multifactor theory?

Answer: The Anarchic or Multifactor theory was put forward by E.L. Thorndike.

22. In which year did Charles Spearman propose his two-factor theory?

Answer: Charles Spearman proposed his two-factor theory in 1904.

23. What are the two kinds of group intelligence tests?

Answer: There are two kinds of group intelligence tests: verbal and non-verbal.

24. Name two famous performance tests.

Answer: Two famous performance tests are Kohl’s Block Design test and The Cube Construction Tests.

25. Who developed the concept of mental age (M.A.)?

Answer: In categorising children of different abilities, Binet developed a scale of units he called mental age (M.A.).

26. Who devised the concept of the Intelligence Quotient (IQ)?

Answer: In 1912, William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of the Intelligence Quotient (IQ).

27. In which year was the concept of IQ devised?

Answer: The concept of IQ was devised in 1912.

28. What is the IQ range for a person classified as ‘Average’?

Answer: The IQ range for a person classified as ‘Average’ is 90-109.

29. What is the IQ range for a person classified as an ‘Idiot’?

Answer: The IQ range for a person classified as an ‘Idiot’ is below 20.

30. What is the IQ range for a person classified as a ‘Moron’?

Answer: The IQ range for a person classified as a ‘Moron’ is 50–70.

31. What percentage of the population is classified as ‘Very superior’?

Answer: 1.5 percent of the population is classified as ‘Very superior’.

32. What is standard deviation in the context of IQ scores?

Answer: Standard deviation is a mathematical way of grouping people together. In a bell-shaped distribution of IQ scores with an average of 100, one standard deviation consists of 34.1% of the population. By combining one standard deviation above and one standard deviation below the average, you get 68.2% of the population.

33. What are the three main aspects suggested by most definitions of intelligence?

Answer: Most definitions of intelligence suggest three main aspects. First, intelligence is defined in terms of observable objective behaviour. Second, most definitions refer to both an individual’s capacity to learn and to knowledge that has already been acquired. Third, many definitions also suggest that the ability to adapt to the environment is a sign of intelligence.

34. Define intelligence according to Sternberg. What does it emphasize?

Answer: According to Sternberg, “Intelligence is the ability to adapt, to shape, and select an environment to accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture”. This definition is part of a group of definitions that view intelligence as a general and mental adaptability to new problems and situations of life.

35. Explain the ‘Ability to do Abstract Reasoning’ group of definitions.

Answer: This group of definitions maintains that intelligence is the ability to carry on abstract thinking. This implies the effective use of ideas and efficiency in dealing with symbols, especially numerical and verbal symbols.

36. How does Woolfolk define intelligence?

Answer: Woolfolk defines intelligence as “the ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and adapting to the world.” Based on this definition, a person can be called intelligent in proportion to their ability to use mental energy in handling actual life problems and leading a happy and well-contented life.

37. Explain the difference between abstract and mechanical intelligence with examples.

Answer: Abstract intelligence is the ability to understand and deal with verbal and mathematical symbols. Professional people are high in abstract intelligence. For instance, if a farmer knows about iron deficiency in sugarcane, and if the same mineral deficiency occurs in other crops, he can find it.

Mechanical intelligence is the ability to understand and deal with things and objects and is more concerned with the skills of individuals. Industrialists and building traders are high in this intelligence. For instance, a farmer who has the mechanical skill to perform a spraying operation does it faster and more effectively than those with less mechanical skill.

38. How do heredity and environment influence intelligence according to Newman’s conclusion?

Answer: Heredity provides the physical body to be developed with certain inherent capabilities, while the environment provides for the maturation and training of the organism. In general, Newman concluded that variation in IQ was determined to be about 68 per cent by heredity and 32 per cent by environment.

39. Are there sex differences in intelligence? Explain the findings on this topic.

Answer: According to various studies, it is proper to think that difference in sex does not contribute towards a difference in intelligence. In some cases, no significant difference has been found, and research shows that the average scores of the senses are strongly similar. However, on the basis of performances on scientific items of intelligence tests, there appears to be a slight superiority of boys in questions that involve mathematical material and scientific concepts, while girls excel in materials that deal more directly with humanities.

40. What is the relationship between intelligence and social and economic conditions?

Answer: Intelligence is very much related to social and economic conditions. As the home plays a significant role in the early developmental years of a child, family conditions can influence behaviour and attitudes. The activities, interests, and financial status of parents and other adults in the neighbourhood may provide for the child’s poor, relatively meagre, or an extremely rich series of experiences. However, drive and motivation can operate to overcome social and economic handicaps.

41. Briefly explain Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligence from Gardner’s theory.

Answer: Linguistic intelligence involves the skills in the production and use of language. It is the capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s thinking and understand others.

Logical-Mathematical intelligence involves skills in scientific thinking and problem-solving. It is the ability to think logically and critically.

42. What is the difference between Interpersonal and Intrapersonal intelligence?

Answer: Interpersonal intelligence is the sensitivity to subtle aspects of others’ behaviours. It is the skill of understanding the motives, feelings, and behaviours of other people so as to bond into a comfortable relationship with others.

Intrapersonal intelligence is the awareness of one’s own feelings, motives, and desires. This refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations and using that knowledge to effectively relate to others.

43. Explain Bodily-Kinesthetic and Musical intelligence as per Gardner’s classification.

Answer: Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence is the ability to use the whole or portions of the body flexibly and creatively. This consists of the use of the whole body or portions of it for display or construction of products and problem-solving.

Musical intelligence is the sensitivity to musical rhythms and patterns. It is the capacity to produce, create, and manipulate musical patterns.

44. What is the Uni- or one-factor theory of intelligence? Why is it considered too simple?

Answer: The Uni- or one-factor theory holds that intelligence is a basic ability that affects performance on all cognitively oriented tasks. According to this theory, an intelligent person will do well in various tasks like computing mathematical problems, analysing poetry, and solving riddles.

This theory is considered too simple because in actual life situations, its ideas do not fit well. For example, children who are bright in Mathematics may not be so good in Civics, despite serious interest and hard work. This suggests the unitary theory is too simple to explain intelligence satisfactorily.

45. What are the four basic attributes of intelligence according to Thorndike?

Answer: According to Thorndike, the four basic attributes of intelligence are:

Level: The level of intelligence is proportional to the level of difficulty of a problem solved. It cannot be measured in perfect isolation.
Range: It refers to the number of problems of a given degree that one can solve. An individual having a certain level of intelligence should be able to solve the whole range of problems at that level.
Area: Area counts the total number of situations at each level through which the individual is able to respond.
Speed: This means the quickness or speed with which a problem is solved.

46. What are the main characteristics of the ‘G’ factor in Spearman’s theory?

Answer: The main characteristics of the ‘G’ factor are:

It has universal inborn ability.
It has general mental energy.
It is constant.
The amount of ‘G’ differs from individual to individual.
It is used in every activity of life.
Greater the ‘G’ in an individual, greater is his success in life.

47. What are the main characteristics of the ‘S’ factor in Spearman’s theory?

Answer: The main characteristics of the ‘S’ factor are:

It is learned and acquired in the environment.
It varies from activity to activity in the same individual.
Individuals differ in the amount of ‘S’ ability.

48. What is an Individual Test of intelligence? Give two examples.

Answer: An Individual Test of intelligence is administered to only one individual at a time. A trained psychologist is expected to administer the test for a definite period of time and interpret the result. These tests cover the age group from 2 years to 18 years. Two examples are The Binet Simon tests and the Weschler test.

49. What is a Performance Test? For whom is it especially useful?

Answer: A Performance Test is designed to test problem-solving ability using certain objects such as pictures and blocks, instead of words. These tests are especially useful for young children, illiterates, persons with speech defects, and persons who do not have proficiency in language.

50. What is the difference between Mental Age and Chronological Age?

Answer: Mental Age (M.A.) is a concept developed by Binet, where a child’s intelligence is determined by the mental age level they could attain on a test. For example, a mental age of 12 means a student’s performance on an intelligence test equals the average performance level of a group of 12-year-olds.

Chronological Age (C.A.) is the actual calendar or biological age of the child. It is the real age of the child taken into consideration for the test.

51. How are intelligence tests used for classification and guidance purposes in schools?

Answer: For classification purposes, intelligence tests are useful to categorise students. This classification is done on the basis of intelligence, allowing classes of students with higher intelligence to be arranged separately from those with lower intelligence, which can make teaching-learning more effective.

For guidance purposes, intelligence tests are needed for educational and vocational guidance. On the basis of these tests, it is possible to provide proper guidance to students so that they may be able to select the courses of their choice.

52. Why are intelligence tests considered to lack reliability and standardisation?

Answer: Intelligence tests are considered to lack reliability because they do not always give the same results when administered repeatedly. Reliability means that if a student secures a certain score on a test today, they should secure the same score on the same test after some days. In intelligence tests, this characteristic is often lacking. A reliable and valid test is often known as a standardised test, a quality that intelligence tests may not possess.

53. How can culture and teacher bias affect the results of intelligence tests?

Answer: Culture can affect test results because intelligence tests differ in different cultures. For instance, students brought up in a good environment may secure good marks, while those from a backward environment may score very badly. There is a shortage of culture-free tests.

Teacher bias can also affect results as the use of intelligence tests can sometimes change the attitude of teachers. Teachers may become biased, limiting their interest to intelligent students only, or in some cases, fearing intelligent children.

54. Why is there an emphasis on speed in intelligence tests? How can this be a limitation?

Answer: In intelligence tests, more emphasis has been put on speed. This can be a limitation because some students may be intelligent but are slow in responding. In this situation, an intelligent child often lags behind, and the test may not accurately reflect their intelligence.

55. What is the bell-shaped distribution of IQ scores? What does it show?

Answer: The bell-shaped distribution of IQ scores is a graph that shows how IQ scores are spread across a population. It shows that most people are in the centre, with an average IQ of 100, while some people score very well (high IQ) and some score very poorly (low IQ). The graph shows that scores can go high or low and still make sense because of their relationship to the average of 100. The different regions of the graph show standard deviations from the average.

56. Explain the three groups of definitions for intelligence: Ability to Adjust, to Learn, and to do Abstract Reasoning.

Answer: Psychologists have classified the various definitions of intelligence into distinct groups. The first group defines intelligence as the Ability to Adjust. According to this group, intelligence is general and mental adaptability to new problems and situations of life. For example, Alfred Binet stated, “Intelligence is the ability of an individual to direct his behaviour towards a goal,” and William James defined it as “the ability to adjust oneself successfully to a relatively new situation.” This group includes definitions that see intelligence as adapting to, shaping, and selecting environments to accomplish goals.

The second group of definitions stresses the Ability to Learn. The more intelligent a person is, the more readily and extensively they are able to learn and enlarge their field of activity and experience. Buckingham’s definition, “Intelligence is the learning ability,” is a key example of this perspective. This view suggests that a person’s capacity to acquire knowledge and skills is a primary measure of their intelligence.

The third group of definitions maintains that intelligence is the Ability to do Abstract Reasoning. This implies the effective use of ideas and efficiency in dealing with symbols, especially numerical and verbal symbols. L. M. Terman stated, “An individual is intelligent in proportion as he/she is able to carry on abstract thinking.” Similarly, Henry Garrel defined intelligence as “the ability demanded in the solution of problems which require the comprehension and use of symbols, i.e, words, numbers, diagrams, equations, formula.”

57. Discuss the three kinds of intelligence distinguished by psychologists: Abstract, Mechanical, and Social.

Answer: For convenience, psychologists often distinguish between three kinds of intelligence.

Abstract intelligence is the ability to understand and deal with verbal and mathematical symbols. This type of intelligence receives the greatest weight in many contexts. Professional people are typically high in abstract intelligence. For instance, if a farmer knows about iron deficiency in sugarcane, and if the same mineral deficiency occurs in other crops, he can use his abstract intelligence to identify the problem.

Mechanical intelligence is the ability to understand and deal with things and objects and is more concerned with the skills of individuals. Industrialists and building traders are high in this intelligence. For example, a farmer who has the mechanical skill to perform a spraying operation does it faster and more effectively than those with less mechanical skill.

Social intelligence is the ability to understand and deal with persons and to apply psychological principles of human relationships. Salespersons, politicians, and diplomats possess this type of intelligence, as it involves understanding and interacting effectively with other people.

58. Explain the nature and characteristics of intelligence regarding inheritance and environmental factors.

Answer: Intelligence is understood to be shaped by both inheritance and environmental factors.

Regarding inheritance, it is believed that the amount of intelligence a person possesses is inherited and fixed. This fixed amount does not reveal itself at the start of life but grows as the child grows. The general belief is that the growth of intelligence stops and reaches its limit at the age of sixteen. As regards a person’s intelligence, their position relative to others remains the same.

Intelligence is also influenced by environmental factors. A positive environment with love, affection, and concern has very desirable effects on a child’s development, while a poor environment can retard the development of intelligence. Heredity provides the physical body with certain inherent capabilities, while the environment provides for the maturation and training of the organism. Newman concluded that variation in IQ was determined to be about 68 per cent by heredity and 32 per cent by environment.

59. Discuss Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, explaining any four types with examples.

Answer: According to Gardner’s multiple theory of intelligence, all human beings possess at least eight intelligences. This theory suggests that intelligence is not a single entity; rather, distinct and independent types of intelligences exist. This means that if a person exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate their level in other types.

Four of these intelligences are:

Linguistic (skills involved in the production and use of language): This is the capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s thinking and understand others. Poets and writers, for example, have high linguistic intelligence.
Logical-Mathematical (skills in scientific thinking and problem solving): This is the ability to think logically and critically. Scientists and mathematicians who can solve complex problems demonstrate this type of intelligence.
Bodily-Kinesthetic (using whole or portions of the body flexibly and creatively): This consists of the use of the whole body or portions of it for display or construction of products and problem solving. Athletes, dancers, and surgeons are examples of individuals with high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.
Interpersonal (sensitivity to subtle aspects of others’ behaviours): This is the skill of understanding the motives, feelings, and behaviours of other people so as to bond into a comfortable relationship with others. Counselors, politicians, and social workers often have strong interpersonal intelligence.

60. Explain Spearman’s two-factor theory. How does it explain an individual’s performance in different tasks?

Answer: The English psychologist Charles Spearman proposed the two-factor theory of intelligence in 1904. According to him, intellectual abilities are comprised of two factors: the general ability, known as the G-factor, and specific abilities, known as S-factors. The G-factor includes mental operations that are primary and common to all performances, while S-factors are specific abilities related to particular tasks. The performance of an individual is determined by both the G-factor and the S-factor.

This theory explains an individual’s performance by suggesting that success in any task depends on a combination of general intelligence and a specific skill for that task. For example, an individual’s performance in literature is partly due to their general intelligence (G) and partly due to a specific aptitude for language (S₁), represented as G + S₁. Similarly, their performance in mathematics may be the result of G + S₂, and in drawing, it may be G + S₃. The G-factor is present in all specific activities, but the S-factor varies from one activity to another.

61. What are the educational implications of the two-factor theory of intelligence?

Answer: The two-factor theory has several educational implications as it gives a teacher better insight into the nature of intelligence. These implications include:

The general ability (G-factor) differs from individual to individual.
The specific abilities (S-factors) also differ from individual to individual.
The ‘S’ factor varies in degrees and can be modified by learning or habitual training.
A child requires different amounts of ‘G’ and ‘S’ factors for achieving success in different subjects.
A high quality of ‘G’ factor is required for success in life.
Both ‘G’ and ‘S’ factors have a high correlation.
This theory could be used to guide the construction of a set of ability tests.

62. Differentiate between individual and group intelligence tests, highlighting their key differences.

Answer: Individual and group intelligence tests differ in several key ways:

Individual tests are meant for only one individual at a time, whereas group tests are meant for assessing groups of individuals in one sitting.
In individual tests, a close contact is established with the individual, which allows for acquiring well-established facts about the individual’s personality. This is not possible in a group test.
Objectivity and standardisation are often lacking in individual tests, but these qualities are present in group tests.
In an individual test, both elders and youngsters can be tested. However, testing is not possible in young individuals with group tests.

63. What are the advantages of using non-verbal and performance tests over verbal tests?

Answer: Non-verbal and performance tests were developed to overcome the limitations of verbal tests, which gave an advantage to those with linguistic superiority. The advantages of non-verbal and performance tests are:

They are useful for individuals with language handicaps for various reasons. This includes people from foreign language speaking groups, illiterates who cannot read or write, younger children, and individuals with sensory defects like being deaf or dumb. They are also suitable for mentally retarded children who are slow in responding to verbal items and for those from unprivileged classes with limited educational opportunities.
Furthermore, non-verbal and performance tests are more or less language and culture-free. Unlike verbal tests that are tied to a specific region’s language or culture, these tests can be used for cross-cultural and linguistic studies of intelligence. They also prove useful in determining aptitude and promise in practical areas like shop work and mechanical jobs.

64. Explain the various uses of intelligence tests in an educational setting.

Answer: Intelligence tests are very important for students in schools and have several uses:

For Classification: These tests are useful to categorise students based on their intelligence. Classes for students with higher intelligence can be arranged separately from those with lower intelligence, making teaching and learning more effective.
For Guidance Purposes: Intelligence tests are needed for educational and vocational guidance. Based on the test results, it is possible to provide proper guidance to students so they can select courses that match their abilities.
For Selection Purposes: These tests are used for selecting students for various courses, subjects, scholarships, or co-curricular activities. Children are often selected based on their IQ.
To Know the Individuals: The tests are used to understand individuals and their potentialities, which is essential for child-centered education and assessing the overall child’s personality.
To Establish Aspiration Level: The results help in establishing appropriate aspiration levels for individuals, preventing the injustice of setting goals that are too high or too low for their intelligence level.
For Promotions: Using these tests to promote students to the next class is considered proper, as it ensures promotion is based on ability.

65. Discuss any four major limitations of intelligence tests.

Answer: Intelligence tests have several major limitations that affect their use and interpretation. Four of these are:

Lack of reliability and standardisation: Intelligence tests are often not reliable, meaning they do not produce similar results when administered repeatedly to the same person. A reliable test, also known as a standardised test, should yield consistent scores, but this characteristic is often lacking in intelligence tests.
Not accurate and comprehensive: These tests are neither accurate nor comprehensive because the nature of intelligence itself is not clearly understood. Consequently, the test items used do not measure all aspects of intelligence, making the tests incomplete.
Affected by culture: Intelligence tests differ across cultures. Students from a good environment may secure good marks, while those from a backward environment may score poorly. There is a shortage of culture-free tests that can be applied universally without bias.
Teachers become biased: The use of intelligence tests can sometimes negatively change the attitude of teachers and students. Teachers may become biased, limiting their interest to only the intelligent students, or in some cases, they may even fear intelligent children.

66. Explain the concept of IQ and how it is calculated. What does an IQ score of 100 signify?

Answer: The concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was devised in 1912 by William Stern, a German psychologist. IQ represents the degree of brightness possessed by an individual and is a measure of a person’s intellectual development relative to people of their age group.

IQ is calculated by expressing intelligence as the ratio of the mental age (M.A.) to the chronological age (C.A.). The mental age is divided by the chronological age, and the result is multiplied by 100 to remove the decimal point. The formula is:
IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100

An IQ score of 100 signifies that a person’s mental age is equal to their chronological age. For example, a 12-year-old child who performs on an intelligence test at the average level of a group of 12-year-olds has an M.A. of 12 and a C.A. of 12, resulting in an IQ of 100. This score is considered normal or average.

67. Describe the classification of individuals based on IQ ranges, from ‘Very superior’ to ‘Mentally weak’.

Answer: Individuals can be classified into different categories based on their IQ scores. The classification, from ‘Very superior’ to ‘Mentally weak’, is as follows:

IQ Range 140 and above: Very superior
IQ Range 129-139: Superior
IQ Range 110-119: High average
IQ Range 90-109: Average
IQ Range 80-89: Low average
IQ Range 70-79: Borderline weak
IQ Range Below 70: Mentally weak

The lowest classification, ‘Mentally weak’, is sometimes subdivided into three further classes:

Moron: IQ – 50 – 70
Imbecility: IQ – 20-50
Idiot: IQ – Below 20

68. Discuss the various definitions of intelligence, classifying them into the four distinct groups mentioned in the chapter.

Answer: A variety of definitions on intelligence have been suggested by psychologists who can be classified into at least four distinct groups as follows:

Ability to Adjust: According to this group of definitions, intelligence is general and mental adaptability to new problems and situations of life.

Alfred Binet: “Intelligence is the ability of an individual to direct his behaviour towards a goal”.
William James: “It is the ability to adjust oneself successfully to a relatively new situation”.
Sternberg: “Intelligence is the ability to adapt, to shape, and select an environment to accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture”.
J. Piaget: “Intelligence is an adaptation to physical and social environment”.
Freeman: “Intelligence is represented in behaviour by the capacity of the individual to adjust himself/herself to new situations to solve new problems to learn”.

Ability to Learn: This group of definitions of Intelligence stresses the ability to learn. The more intelligent the person, the more readily and extensively he/she is able to learn and enlarge his/her field of activity and experience.

Buckingham: “Intelligence is the learning ability”.
Spearman: “Intelligence may be thought of in terms of two abilities i.e. “g” or general and ‘s’ or specific”.
Thurston: “It defines intelligence in terms of five primary abilities i.e. ‘S’ or space factor, ‘N’ or number factor, ‘V’ or verbal comprehension factor, ‘W’ or word fluency factor, and ‘M’ or memory factor”.

Ability to do Abstract Reasoning: This group of definitions maintains that intelligence is the ability to carry on abstract thinking. This implies the effective use of ideas and efficiency in dealing with symbols, especially numerical and verbal symbols.

L. M. Terman: “An individual is intelligent in proportion as he/she is able to carry on abstract thinking”.
P. E. Vernon: “Intelligence is an alround thinking capacity or mental deficiency”.
E. L. Thorndike: “We may define intelligence in general as the power of good responses from the point of view of truth or fact”.
Henry Garrel: “Intelligence is the ability demanded in the solution of problems which require the comprehension and use of symbols, i.e, words, numbers, diagrams, equations, formula”.

Operational Definition: These categories of definitions are not and perhaps cannot be mutually exclusive. They intersect and overlap at many points.

G. D. Stoddard: “Intelligence is the ability to undertake activities”.
Wechsler: “Intelligence is the global or aggregate capacity of an individual and to deal effectively with her/his environment”.
Gardner: “Intelligence is the capacity to do something useful in the society in which we live. Intelligence is the ability to respond successfully to new situations and the capacity to learn from one’s past experiences”.
Woolfolk: “Intelligence is the ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and adapting to the world.”

69. Describe in detail the general nature and characteristics of intelligence, covering inheritance, environment, and other factors.

Answer: The important nature and characteristics of intelligence are as follows:

Intelligence is inherited: The amount of intelligence that a person possesses is inherited and fixed. The amount though fixed does not reveal itself at the start of life with the growth of the child; the amount inherited by a child also grows. The general belief is that the growth of intelligence stops and it reaches its limit at the age of sixteen. As regards his intelligence, his position remains the same.
Intelligence is influenced by environment factors: Love, affection, concern and generosity judiciously bestowed on growing children, have very desirable effects. Poor environment retard development of intelligence. Heredity provides the physical body to be developed with certain inherent capabilities, while environment provides for the maturation and training of the organism. In general Newman concluded that variation in IQ were determined about 68 per cent by heredity and 32 per cent by environment.
Intelligence helps in adjustment and inventions: An intelligent person has the ability to adjust himself to the changing circumstances with ease, efficiency, and speed. He has the capacity to assimilate ideas very quickly and clearly. He can cope up, with new situations very successfully.
Intelligence has no sex differences: Various studies have been conducted by psychologists and researchers to find out whether women are more intelligent than men and vice versa. In some cases no significant difference has been found. Research studies also show that the average scores of the senses are strongly similar. Therefore, it is proper to think that difference in sex does not contribute towards difference in intelligence. On the basis of number of performances on scientific items of intelligence test appear to show that there is a slight superiority of boys in question that involve mathematical material and scientific concepts, and that girls excel in materials that deal more directly with humanities.
Intelligence has no racial or cultural differences: The results of earlier studies proved that intelligence is not the birth right of any particular race or group. The ‘bright’ and the ‘dull’ can be found in any race, caste, or cultural group.
Intelligence is very much related to social and economic conditions: As home plays a significant role in the early development years of a child, it can be expected that family conditions can influence on behaviour and attitudes. The activities, interests, and financial status of parents and of other adults in the neighbourhood environment may provide for the child’s poor, relatively meagre, or an extremely rich series of experiences. Drive and motivation can operate to overcome social and economic handicaps.

70. Explain Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, describing all eight types with relevant examples.

Answer: According to Gardner, all human beings possess at least eight intelligences. Thus, intelligence is not a single entity; rather distinct types of intelligences exist. Each type of intelligence is an independent one. It means, if a person exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate being high or low on other types of intelligences. The multiple intelligences as classified by Gardner can be explained in the following terms:

Linguistic (skills involved in the production and use of language): It is the capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s thinking and understand others.
Logical-Mathematical (skills in scientific thinking and problem solving): It is the ability to think logically and critically.
Spatial (skills in forming visual images and patterns): It refers to the abilities involved in forming, using, and transforming mental images.
Musical (sensitivity to musical rhythms and patterns): It is the capacity to produce, create, and manipulate musical patterns.
Bodily-Kinesthetic (using whole or portions of the body flexibly and creatively): This consists of the use of the whole body or portions of it for display or construction of products and problem solving.
Naturalistic (sensitivity to the features of the natural world): This involves complete awareness of our relationship with the natural world.
Interpersonal (sensitivity to subtle aspects of others’ behaviours): This is the skill of understanding the motives, feelings, and behaviours of other people so as to bond into a comfortable relationship with others.
Intrapersonal (awareness of one’s own feelings, motives, and desires): This refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations and using that knowledge to effectively relate to others.

71. Compare and contrast the Unitary theory, Two-factor theory, and Multifactor theory of intelligence.

Answer: A number of theories of intelligence have been advanced to understand the complexity of the nature of the concept of intelligence. Some important theories are as follows:

Unitary or Monarchy theory: This theory was put forward by Johnson and Stem. This theory holds that intelligence consists of one factor: simply a fund of intellectual competency, which is universal for all the activities of the individual. A man who has vigour can move so much to the East as to the West in a similar way if one has a fund of intelligence he can utilise it to any area of his life and can be as successful in one area as in the other depending upon his fund of intelligence. But in actual life situations, the ideas propagated by this theory do not fit well. We find that the children who are bright in Mathematics may, despite serious interest and hard work, not be so good in Civics. Hence, it is suggested that approach of unitary theory is too simple to explain intelligence satisfactorily.

Two-factor theory: The English psychologist, Charles Spearman, proposed this theory. According to him intellectual abilities are comprised of two factors, namely; the general ability known as G-factor and specific abilities known as S-factor. The performance by the individual is determined by the G-factor and the S-factor. The G-factor includes mental operations which are primary and common to all performances. In addition to the g-factor, he said that there are also many specific abilities, contained in what he called the s- factor. Excellent singers, architects, scientists, and athletes may be high on g-factor, but in addition to this, they have specific abilities which allow them to excel in their respective domains.

Anarchic or Multifactor theory: This theory was put forward by E.L. Thorndike. He didn’t believe in the concept of general mental ability. He was a connectionist and believed that intelligence is nothing “but specific stimulus-response connection”. It considers intelligence to be a combination of numerous separate elements or factors, each one being a minute element of one ability. There is no such thing as general intelligence (g) i.e. a single factor. According to this theory, difference in intelligence among individuals are due to the number and kinds of connections that can be formed in the brain. He distinguished four basic attributes of intelligence:

Level: The level of intelligence is proportional to the level of difficulty of a problem solved.
Range: It refers to the number of problems of a given degree that one can solve.
Area: Area counts the total number of situations at each level through which the individual is able to respond.
Speed: This means the quickness on speed with which a problem is solved.

72. What are the different classifications of intelligence tests? Explain each type—Individual, Group, and Performance—with examples.

Answer: The general intelligence tests have been classified into three groups: Individual, group, and performance tests.

Individual Test: The individual intelligence test is administered to only one individual at a time. A trained psychologist is expected to administer the test for a definite period of time and interpret the result. These tests cover the age group from 2 years to 18 years. These are:
(i) The Binet Simon tests,
(ii) Revised tests by Terman,
(iii) Mental Scholastic Tests of Burt, and
(iv) Weschler test.
Group Test: The group intelligence tests are meant for assessing the intelligence of a large number of individuals in one sitting. Group tests had their birth in America when the intelligence of the recruits who joined the army in the First World War was to be calculated. These are:
(i) The Army Alpha and Beta test
(ii) Terman’s group tests,
(iii) Otis Self administrative tests.
There are two kinds of group intelligence tests—verbal and non-verbal. Verbal tests require an individual to read and write solutions, while non-verbal tests use pictures, diagrams, puzzles, and mazes, requiring only a mark with a pencil.
Performance Test: Performance tests are designed to test problem solving ability using certain objects such as pictures and blocks, instead of words. These tests are especially useful for young children, illiterates, persons with speech defects and persons who do not have proficiency in language. Some of the famous tests are:
(i) Kohl’s Block Design test,
(ii) The Cube Construction Tests, and
(iii) The Pass Along Tests.

73. “Intelligence tests are useful tools but have significant limitations.” Discuss this statement in detail, covering both uses and limitations.

Answer: Intelligence tests are useful tools in many areas, but they also come with significant limitations.

Uses of Intelligence Tests: Intelligence tests in schools are very important for the students. The uses of these tests are given below:

For Classification: In schools, these tests are useful to categorise the students. This classification is done on the basis of intelligence. The classes of the students with higher intelligence can be arranged separately from that of lower intelligence separately.
For Guidance Purposes: Intelligence tests are needed for educational and vocational guidance to the students. On the basis of these tests, it is possible to provide proper guidance to them so that they may be able to select the courses of their choice.
For Selection Purposes: Intelligence tests are held for selecting various courses, subjects, scholarships, or co-curricular activities. Children are selected on the basis of their IQ.
To Know the Individuals: The intelligence tests are used to know the individuals and their potentialities. For child-centered education, it is essential to know the children and the intelligence tests.
To Establish Aspiration Level: On the basis of results of the intelligence tests, the aspiration levels of the individuals can be established.
For Promotions: It is always proper to use the tests to promote students to the next classes. In the vocational fields, the use of these tests is always advantageous so that the person may be promoted according to his/her abilities.
For Research Purpose: Intelligence tests are used for many important research studies too.

Limitations of Intelligence Tests

Lack of reliability and standardisation: Intelligence tests are generally not reliable. Reliability means similar results of a test when it is administrated repeatedly. In intelligence tests this characteristic lacks.
Not accurate and comprehensive: Intelligence tests are neither accurate nor comprehensive because the nature of intelligence is not clear. Therefore, these tests cannot be accurate and comprehensive because all the test items used in intelligence tests do not measure all the aspects.
Affected by culture: Intelligence tests differ in different cultures. Sometimes the students brought up in good environment secure good marks in these tests and those brought up in backward environment score marks very badly. There is a shortage of culture-free tests.
Teachers become biased: The use of intelligence tests sometimes change the attitude of teachers and students. Teachers often become biased. Their interests are limited to the intelligent students only.
Exhibition of guess work: In intelligence tests sometimes students make their responses as a guess work which result in the incorrect measurement of intelligence.
Lack of prediction: No prediction can be made on the basis of the result of intelligence tests. Hence, in this context intelligence tests prediction sometimes prove useless.
Emphasis on speed: In these intelligence tests, more emphasis has been put on speed. But, sometimes students are, no doubt intelligent but they are slow in responding.
Inadequate apparatus: Sometimes the necessary apparatus for measuring intelligence is incomplete and defective in the laboratory due to which proper administration of intelligence tests cannot occur.
Non-co-operation: Sometimes those students who do not co-operate with a teacher or psychologist for the intelligence tests. This non-co-operation occurs mostly among small children.
Difference in development: As it is widely known that the development of man is continuous, intelligence quotient measured in a particular age cannot become a standard in future.

74. Explain the concept of the bell-shaped distribution of IQ scores. What do the different IQ ranges and standard deviation signify for the population?

Answer: There is a bell-shaped distribution for IQ scores. Most people are in the centre, but some people score really well, and some people score really poorly. By having the IQ average at 100, scores can go high or low and still make sense because of their relationship to 100. The different region of this graph shows standard deviations.

Standard deviation is a mathematical way of grouping people together. The middle black line shows the IQ 100. The group right to it is considered as positive standard deviation which consists of 34.1% of the population. Similarly, in the left portion to the middle line, you have everything within one standard deviation of the average (average is 100), or 68.2% of the population. One standard deviation is equal to 34.1%, and by combining both the portion above and below the standard deviation, you get 68.2%.

The different IQ ranges and their classification signify the percentage of the population that falls into each category:

IQ Range 140 and above: Very superior (1.5% of population)
IQ Range 129-139: Superior (11% of population)
IQ Range 110-119: High average (18% of population)
IQ Range 90-109: Average (47% of population)
IQ Range 80-89: Low average (14% of population)
IQ Range 70-79: Borderline weak (6% of population)
IQ Range Below 70: Mentally weak (2.5% of population)

The lowest classification of mentally weak is sometimes subdivided into three classes:

Moron: IQ – 50 – 70
Imbecility: IQ – 20-50
Idiot: IQ – Below 20

Extra MCQs: Knowledge-Based

1: Who defined intelligence as “the ability to adjust oneself successfully to a relatively new situation”?

A. Alfred Binet
B. William James
C. J. Piaget
D. Sternberg

Answer: B. William James

2: In Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, which intelligence refers to the skills involved in scientific thinking and problem-solving?

A. Linguistic
B. Naturalistic
C. Logical-Mathematical
D. Intrapersonal

Answer: C. Logical-Mathematical

3: The concept of Mental Age (M.A.) was first developed by which psychologist?

A. Spearman
B. Gardner
C. Terman
D. Binet

Answer: D. Binet

4: According to Spearman’s two-factor theory, the ‘G’ factor is considered to be:

A. Learned and acquired
B. Specific to one activity
C. Inborn and universal
D. Variable and trainable

Answer: C. Inborn and universal

5: Which type of intelligence test is specifically designed using objects like pictures and blocks instead of words?

A. Verbal Test
B. Group Test
C. Performance Test
D. Individual Test

Answer: C. Performance Test

6: The formula for calculating the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is:

A. (Chronological Age / Mental Age) x 100
B. (Mental Age / Chronological Age) x 100
C. (Mental Age + Chronological Age) / 100
D. (Mental Age – Chronological Age) + 100

Answer: B. (Mental Age / Chronological Age) x 100

7: In the classification of intelligence, the ability to understand and deal with people and apply principles of human relationships is known as:

A. Abstract intelligence
B. Mechanical intelligence
C. General intelligence
D. Social intelligence

Answer: D. Social intelligence

8: The Anarchic or Multifactor theory of intelligence, which denies the existence of a general intelligence factor, was proposed by:

A. E.L. Thorndike
B. Charles Spearman
C. Johnson and Stem
D. Howard Gardner

Answer: A. E.L. Thorndike

9: What is the IQ range for an individual classified as “Average”?

A. 70-79
B. 80-89
C. 90-109
D. 110-119

Answer: C. 90-109

10: The Army Alpha and Beta tests are prominent examples of which type of intelligence test?

A. Individual Tests
B. Performance Tests
C. Group Tests
D. Non-verbal Tests

Answer: C. Group Tests

11: According to the research cited by Newman, what percentage of variation in IQ is determined by environmental factors?

A. 68%
B. 50%
C. 32%
D. 16%

Answer: C. 32%

12: The concept of the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was devised in 1912 by:

A. Alfred Binet
B. William Stern
C. L. M. Terman
D. David Wechsler

Answer: B. William Stern

13: In a normal distribution of IQ scores, what is the average score?

A. 75
B. 120
C. 100
D. 50

Answer: C. 100

14: Which psychologist defined intelligence as “the learning ability”?

A. Spearman
B. Buckingham
C. Freeman
D. Piaget

Answer: B. Buckingham

15: In Gardner’s theory, the awareness of one’s own internal strengths, limitations, feelings, and desires is referred to as:

A. Interpersonal intelligence
B. Naturalistic intelligence
C. Intrapersonal intelligence
D. Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence

Answer: C. Intrapersonal intelligence

16: An individual with an IQ score below 20 would be classified as:

A. Moron
B. Imbecile
C. Borderline weak
D. Idiot

Answer: D. Idiot

17: The Kohl’s Block Design test and the Cube Construction test are examples of:

A. Verbal group tests
B. Individual verbal tests
C. Performance tests
D. Scholastic tests

Answer: C. Performance tests

18: According to Thurstone’s definition of intelligence in terms of primary abilities, the ‘V’ factor stands for:

A. Visualisation factor
B. Verbal comprehension factor
C. Velocity factor
D. Vocational factor

Answer: B. Verbal comprehension factor

19: What does it signify if a person’s mental age is lower than their chronological age?

A. They are a bright child
B. They are normal or average
C. They are slow or retarded
D. Their IQ is exactly 100

Answer: C. They are slow or retarded

20: The theory that holds that intelligence consists of one single fund of intellectual competency, universal for all activities, is known as the:

A. Two-factor theory
B. Multifactor theory
C. Multiple intelligence theory
D. Unitary or Monarchy theory

Answer: D. Unitary or Monarchy theory

21: According to Alfred Binet, intelligence is the ability of an individual to direct his behaviour towards a __________.

A. new situation
B. goal
C. social environment
D. learning process

Answer: B. goal

22: The theory of intelligence that suggests it consists of a general factor (g-factor) and some specific factors (s-factors) is known as the __________ theory.

A. uni-factor
B. multiple intelligence
C. two-factor
D. anarchic

Answer: C. two-factor

23: The ability to understand and deal with persons and apply psychological principles of human relationships is defined as __________ intelligence.

A. abstract
B. mechanical
C. general
D. social

Answer: D. social

24: The general belief is that the growth of intelligence stops and it reaches its limit at the age of __________.

A. twelve
B. sixteen
C. eighteen
D. twenty-one

Answer: B. sixteen

25: According to Gardner’s theory, the ability to use the whole body or portions of it flexibly and creatively for display or problem-solving is called __________ intelligence.

A. spatial
B. interpersonal
C. bodily-kinesthetic
D. naturalistic

Answer: C. bodily-kinesthetic

26: The concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was devised in 1912 by the German psychologist __________.

A. Alfred Binet
B. Charles Spearman
C. L. M. Terman
D. William Stern

Answer: D. William Stern

27: In the formula for calculating IQ, the Mental Age is divided by the __________ and then multiplied by 100.

A. Chronological Age
B. Average Age
C. Standard Deviation
D. Test Score

Answer: A. Chronological Age

28: An IQ score of 100 indicates that a person’s mental age is __________ their chronological age.

A. greater than
B. less than
C. equal to
D. not related to

Answer: C. equal to

29: According to Thorndike’s Anarchic theory, one of the four basic attributes of intelligence is __________, which refers to the quickness with which a problem is solved.

A. level
B. range
C. area
D. speed

Answer: D. speed

30: In the classification of intelligence tests, tests designed to be administered to a large number of individuals in one sitting are known as __________ tests.

A. individual
B. performance
C. group
D. scholastic

Answer: C. group

31: Performance tests, such as Kohl’s Block Design test, are especially useful for testing individuals who are __________.

A. highly educated
B. gifted in language
C. from a specific cultural group
D. illiterate or have speech defects

Answer: D. illiterate or have speech defects

32: The distribution of IQ scores in a large population typically follows a __________ curve.

A. linear
B. exponential
C. bell-shaped
D. random

Answer: C. bell-shaped

33: In a standard distribution of IQ scores, the range of 90-109 is classified as __________.

A. superior
B. high average
C. average
D. low average

Answer: C. average

34: The ‘S’ factor in Spearman’s two-factor theory is described as being __________ and acquired in the environment.

A. inborn
B. constant
C. universal
D. learned

Answer: D. learned

35: The concept of __________ was developed by Binet to categorize children of different abilities based on their performance on an intelligence test.

A. intelligence quotient
B. mental age
C. chronological age
D. standard deviation

Answer: B. mental age

36: According to Newman’s conclusion, variations in IQ were determined about 32 per cent by __________ and 68 per cent by heredity.

A. education
B. environment
C. culture
D. gender

Answer: B. environment

37: The ability to understand and deal with things and objects, a skill often high in industrialists and traders, is known as __________ intelligence.

A. social
B. abstract
C. mechanical
D. verbal

Answer: C. mechanical

38: The __________ theory, put forward by E.L. Thorndike, considers intelligence to be a combination of numerous separate elements or factors.

A. unitary
B. two-factor
C. monarchy
D. multifactor

Answer: D. multifactor

Extra MCQs: Competency-Based

39: Assertion (A): According to Alfred Binet, intelligence is the ability of an individual to direct his behaviour towards a goal.
Reason (R): Binet’s definition is part of a group of definitions that categorize intelligence as a general mental adaptability to new problems and situations.