Kings, Farmers and Towns: AHSEC Class 12 History notes

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Get summaries, questions, answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF and guide of Class 12 (second year) History textbook, chapter 2 Kings, Farmers and Towns which is part of the syllabus of students studying under AHSEC/ASSEB (Assam Board). These solutions, however, should only be treated as references and can be modified/changed. 

Summary

The chapter describes historical changes in India after the decline of the Harappan civilisation. Over 1,500 years, new settlements appeared, including agricultural villages in different regions and pastoral groups in the Deccan. People developed new burial practices, building large stone structures called megaliths. By the sixth century BCE, states and kingdoms emerged. Alongside political changes, agriculture expanded, and new towns developed.

Historians use inscriptions, texts, coins, and visual material to study this period. In the 1830s, James Prinsep deciphered two ancient scripts, Brahmi and Kharosthi. Many inscriptions mentioned a king called Piyadassi, later identified as Ashoka. These discoveries helped reconstruct early Indian political history.

During the sixth century BCE, sixteen large states, called mahajanapadas, existed. Some were ruled by kings, while others, known as ganas or sanghas, were governed by groups of leaders. Magadha became the most powerful state due to its fertile land, iron resources, and strong leadership. It expanded under rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, who built fortifications and maintained armies.

The Mauryan Empire grew from Magadha, starting with Chandragupta Maurya around 321 BCE. His grandson Ashoka became famous for his conquest of Kalinga. After witnessing the violence, Ashoka promoted dhamma, encouraging respect, kindness, and tolerance. His messages were inscribed on rocks and pillars. He established administrative centres across the empire, appointing officials to spread his ideas and maintain order.

Different regions had different levels of control. The empire’s administration was strongest in areas near the capital, Pataliputra. Communication was difficult, and armies were needed to protect trade routes. Ashoka also created a group of officers, the dhamma mahamattas, to ensure his policies were followed.

After the Mauryan Empire declined, new kingdoms appeared. In the south, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas controlled trade and land. The Kushanas ruled a vast area, using coins and statues to project their power. Some rulers claimed divine status, calling themselves “sons of god.”

Agriculture advanced with iron ploughs and irrigation. Landowners, village heads, and peasants had different roles, and some groups, like forest dwellers, remained outside direct control. From the early centuries CE, rulers granted land to Brahmanas and religious institutions. Some grants recorded in inscriptions showed the changing rural economy.

New cities grew along trade routes, including river ports and coastal towns. Merchants and artisans formed guilds to regulate trade and production. Coins, such as punch-marked silver pieces, were used for transactions. Indian goods, including spices and textiles, were traded with the Roman Empire. The Kushanas issued the first gold coins, and the Guptas later minted high-quality currency.

Epigraphists, who study inscriptions, face challenges in interpreting ancient scripts. Some inscriptions are damaged, and meanings of words are uncertain. Ashoka’s inscriptions promoted non-violence after his conquest of Kalinga, but the message was not found in that region, raising questions about its reach. Not all aspects of daily life were recorded in inscriptions, so historians use multiple sources to understand the past.

Textbook solutions

Answer in 100-150 words

1. Discuss the evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?

Answer: In Early Historic cities, evidence of craft production includes fine pottery bowls and dishes with a glossy finish known as Northern Black Polished Ware, along with ornaments, tools, weapons, and vessels made from materials such as gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell, and terracotta. Short votive inscriptions from the second century BCE mention craftsmen like carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, and weavers. Guilds or shrenis, which regulated production and trade, are also mentioned.

In contrast, Harappan cities show evidence of craft production in the form of stone beads, shell objects, metal tools, terracotta figurines, and pottery, produced in specialised workshops. The presence of standardised weights and measures indicates a highly organised economic system. Unlike Early Historic cities, Harappan craft production was more centrally controlled, with planned workshops and large-scale production for trade.

2. Describe the salient features of mahajanapadas.

Answer: The sixth century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history. It is an era associated with early states, cities, the growing use of iron, the development of coinage, etc. It also witnessed the growth of diverse systems of thought, including Buddhism and Jainism. Early Buddhist and Jaina texts mention sixteen states known as mahajanapadas. Some prominent ones included Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, and Avanti. Most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings, but some, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies where power was shared by a number of men, often collectively called rajas. Each mahajanapada had a capital city, often fortified. The rulers collected taxes from cultivators, traders, and artisans. Some states acquired standing armies and maintained regular bureaucracies, while others relied on militias recruited from the peasantry. Magadha emerged as the most powerful mahajanapada due to its agricultural productivity, access to iron resources, and strategic location along the Ganga river.

3. How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?

Answer: Historians attempt to reconstruct the lives of ordinary people by examining stories contained in anthologies such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra. Many of these stories likely originated as popular oral tales before being written down. The Jatakas, composed in Pali around the middle of the first millennium CE, provide insights into the experiences and struggles of common people. One story, the Gandatindu Jataka, describes the plight of subjects under a wicked king, including elderly individuals, cultivators, herders, and even animals, all of whom suffered due to high taxes and robberies. To escape, they abandoned their village and moved to the forest. These stories indicate the strained relationship between rulers and their subjects, particularly the rural population. Historians analyze such narratives to understand the challenges, aspirations, and daily lives of ordinary people in the past.

4. Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (Source 8). Do you notice any similarities or differences?

Answer: The Pandyan chief Senguttuvan received various gifts, including ivory, fragrant wood, fans made of deer hair, honey, sandalwood, red ochre, antimony, turmeric, cardamom, pepper, coconuts, mangoes, medicinal plants, fruits, onions, sugarcane, flowers, areca nut, bananas, baby tigers, lions, elephants, monkeys, bears, deer, musk deer, foxes, peacocks, musk cats, wild cocks, and speaking parrots.

In contrast, the village of Danguna produced goods such as grass, animal hides for seats, charcoal, fermenting liquors, salt, mines, khadira trees, flowers, milk, hidden treasures, and deposits, along with major and minor taxes.

A similarity between the two lists is the presence of agricultural and forest products, including flowers and medicinal plants. However, the main difference lies in the nature of goods—while the Pandyan chief received luxury items, animals, and forest products, Danguna primarily contributed essential goods, raw materials, and revenue-related items.

5. List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.

Answer: Epigraphists face several problems in deciphering inscriptions. Sometimes, letters are very faintly engraved, making reconstructions uncertain. Inscriptions may be damaged or have missing letters, complicating their interpretation. The exact meaning of words used in inscriptions is not always clear, as some terms may be specific to a particular place or time. Scholars often debate and discuss alternative readings of inscriptions. Additionally, not all inscriptions have been deciphered, published, or translated, and many have been lost over time. Another major challenge is that inscriptions focus on grand events rather than routine aspects of daily life. Since they usually present the perspective of those who commissioned them, historians must compare them with other sources to gain a more complete understanding of the past. Thus, epigraphy alone does not provide a full picture of political and economic history.

Short essay-type answers

6. Discuss the main features of Mauryan administration. Which of these elements are evident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?

Answer: The Mauryan administration was highly centralized, with the king as the supreme authority. The empire was divided into several provinces, each under a governor. There were five major political centers in the empire: Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri. These centers were crucial for administrative control, trade, and communication.

The Mauryan rulers maintained a large standing army, with divisions for infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephants, and navy. Megasthenes mentioned a committee with six subcommittees to coordinate military activities, including transport, provisioning, and recruitment.

The Mauryan administration also focused on taxation, infrastructure, and law enforcement. Officials were appointed to oversee various functions such as irrigation, agriculture, trade, mining, and policing. There was also a system of spies and informers to keep the king informed about public affairs.

Asoka, the most famous Mauryan ruler, used inscriptions on rocks and pillars to communicate with his subjects. His inscriptions reflect several administrative features, including governance, social welfare, and moral directives. He appointed officers called Dhamma Mahamattas to spread his policy of Dhamma, which emphasized respect for elders, kindness to servants, and religious tolerance. The inscriptions also indicate that Asoka issued direct orders to officials, ensuring that reports of public affairs reached him at all times.

The use of inscriptions as a means of governance shows the emphasis on a well-organized administrative structure and an attempt to establish moral and ethical governance throughout the empire. These elements highlight the centralized control, communication system, and administrative efficiency of the Mauryan Empire.

7. This is a statement made by one of the best-known epigraphists of the twentieth century, D.C. Sircar: “There is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions.” Discuss.

Answer: Inscriptions in India serve as a valuable source of historical information, covering various aspects of life, culture, and activities of the people. These inscriptions are found on hard surfaces such as stone, metal, and pottery, making them virtually permanent records. They provide insights into political history, with details about the exploits of kings, the administration of empires, and governance strategies. For instance, Asoka’s inscriptions on rocks and pillars reflect his policies of dhamma, including respect for elders, kindness to servants, and religious tolerance.

Economic activities such as land grants, taxation, and trade are also documented in inscriptions. Land grants recorded on copper plates indicate the transfer of land to religious institutions and Brahmanas, showing the socio-economic structure of different periods. The Mauryan period inscriptions highlight state-controlled trade routes and taxation systems, while later inscriptions reveal information about local rulers and their patronage of religious institutions.

Religious and social life is another prominent theme in inscriptions. Many inscriptions commemorate donations made to Buddhist and Jaina monasteries, temples, and stupas by kings, merchants, and common people. They provide insights into religious practices, patronage, and sectarian affiliations. The Prayaga Prashasti, composed in praise of Samudragupta, reflects the glorification of rulers and their divine status, a concept that evolved significantly in the post-Mauryan period.

Inscriptions also reveal details about urban centers and craft production. Votive inscriptions from various cities mention the names of donors, often specifying their occupations such as goldsmiths, potters, and weavers. This indicates the presence of organized guilds (shrenis) and an active commercial economy.

Epigraphy also provides information about social hierarchies and rural life. Some inscriptions mention different categories of people, including landowners, agricultural laborers, and traders. The terms used in inscriptions, such as gahapati for large landholders and vellalar for Tamil landowners, indicate the stratification of society.

Inscriptions serve as a crucial source for reconstructing Indian history, reflecting the diverse aspects of life, culture, and activities in different periods. They offer direct, authentic evidence of the past, supporting the claim made by D.C. Sircar that no aspect of Indian life remains unrepresented in inscriptions.

8. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period.

Answer: The notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period were shaped by the emergence of new dynasties, regional states, and changing socio-political structures.

The new kingdoms that emerged in the Deccan and further south, including the chiefdoms of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in Tamilakam, proved to be stable and prosperous. Chiefs were powerful men whose position may or may not have been hereditary. They derived support from their kinfolk and performed functions such as special rituals, leadership in warfare, and arbitrating disputes. Chiefs received gifts from subordinates, unlike kings who usually collected taxes, and often distributed these among their supporters. Generally, there were no regular armies and officials in chiefdoms.

Early Tamil Sangam texts contain poems describing chiefs and the ways in which they acquired and distributed resources. Many chiefs and kings, including the Satavahanas who ruled over parts of western and central India (c. second century BCE–second century CE) and the Shakas, a people of Central Asian origin who established kingdoms in the north-western and western parts of the subcontinent, derived revenues from long-distance trade. Their social origins were often obscure, but once they acquired power, they attempted to claim social status in a variety of ways.

One means of claiming high status was to identify with a variety of deities. This strategy is best exemplified by the Kushanas (c. first century BCE–first century CE), who ruled over a vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to northwest India. Their history has been reconstructed from inscriptions and textual traditions. The notions of kingship they wished to project are best evidenced in their coins and sculpture.

Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found installed in a shrine at Mat near Mathura, Uttar Pradesh. Similar statues have been found in a shrine in Afghanistan as well. Some historians feel this indicates that the Kushanas considered themselves godlike. Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title devaputra, or “son of god,” possibly inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves sons of heaven.

By the fourth century CE, there is evidence of larger states, including the Gupta Empire. Many of these depended on samantas, men who maintained themselves through local resources, including control over land. They offered homage and provided military support to rulers. Powerful samantas could become kings, while weak rulers might find themselves being reduced to positions of subordination.

Histories of the Gupta rulers have been reconstructed from literature, coins, and inscriptions, including prashastis, composed in praise of kings in particular and patrons in general by poets. While historians attempt to draw factual information from such compositions, those who composed and read them often treasured them as works of poetry rather than as literal accounts of history. The Prayaga Prashasti (also known as the Allahabad Pillar Inscription) composed in Sanskrit by Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta, is a case in point.

9. To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consideration?

Answer: There was a significant transformation in agricultural practices during the period under consideration. One of the key strategies was the shift to plough agriculture, which spread in fertile alluvial river valleys such as those of the Ganga and the Kaveri from around the sixth century BCE. The iron-tipped ploughshare was used to turn the alluvial soil in areas with high rainfall. In some parts of the Ganga valley, the introduction of transplantation dramatically increased the production of paddy, although this meant back-breaking work for the producer.

While the iron ploughshare led to a growth in agricultural productivity, its use was restricted to certain parts of the subcontinent—cultivators in semi-arid regions, such as parts of Punjab and Rajasthan, did not adopt it until much later. In the hilly tracts of the northeastern and central parts of the subcontinent, hoe agriculture was practiced, as it was better suited to the terrain.

Another strategy adopted to increase agricultural production was the use of irrigation through wells, tanks, and, less commonly, canals. Both communities and individuals organized the construction of irrigation works. Kings and powerful individuals often recorded their contributions to irrigation projects in inscriptions, highlighting their role in maintaining agricultural productivity.

Despite these technological and organizational advancements, the benefits of agricultural improvements were not evenly distributed. There was a growing differentiation among people engaged in agriculture. Buddhist texts refer to landless agricultural laborers, small peasants, and large landholders. The term gahapati was used in Pali texts to designate both small and large landowners, and the village headman, whose position was often hereditary, emerged as a powerful figure controlling cultivators. Early Tamil literature (Sangam texts) also mentions different categories of people in villages—large landowners (vellalar), ploughmen (uzhavar), and slaves (adimai). These differences were based on access to land, labor, and new technologies.

Legal texts also reflect concerns over land ownership and boundaries. The Manusmriti, compiled between the second century BCE and the second century CE, advises kings to establish clear land boundaries to avoid disputes. Land grants became a prominent feature from the early centuries of the Common Era. Many of these grants were recorded in inscriptions and were mostly given to religious institutions or Brahmanas.

One example is the land grant by Prabhavati Gupta, the daughter of Chandragupta II, who donated a village to a religious teacher. Such grants often exempted the village from taxes and royal obligations. These land grants led to the emergence of new rural elites and marked a shift in the control and distribution of agricultural resources.

Extras

Additional questions and answers

1. Define epigraphy?

Answer: Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions.

2. Who deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts?

Answer: James Prinsep, an officer in the mint of the East India Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions and coins.

3. What does ‘Piyadassi’ mean?

Answer: Piyadassi means “pleasant to behold”.

4. Mention two important scripts used in early Indian inscriptions.

Answer: Two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions and coins were Brahmi and Kharosthi.

5. When was Brahmi deciphered?

Answer: James Prinsep was able to decipher Asokan Brahmi in 1838.

6. Name the scripts used by Asoka in the northwest region.

Answer: The scripts used by Asoka for inscriptions in the northwest of the subcontinent were Aramaic, Greek, and Kharosthi.

7. Define janapada.

Answer: Janapada means the land where a jana (a people, clan or tribe) sets its foot or settles. It is a word used in both Prakrit and Sanskrit.

8. What is an oligarchy?

Answer: Oligarchy refers to a form of government where power is exercised by a group of men.

9. What were ganas or sanghas?

Answer: Ganas or sanghas were oligarchies, where power was shared by a number of men, often collectively called rajas.

10. Define transplantation in agriculture.

Answer: Transplantation is used for paddy cultivation in areas where water is plentiful. In this method, seeds are first broadcast; when the saplings have grown they are transplanted in waterlogged fields. This process ensures a higher ratio of survival of saplings and higher yields.

11. Who founded the Mauryan Empire?

Answer: Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire around 321 BCE.

12. Who was Megasthenes?

Answer: Megasthenes was a Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. An account written by him is a valuable contemporary work used by historians to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire.

13. Name the capital city of the Mauryan Empire.

Answer: The capital city of the Mauryan Empire was Pataliputra.

14. Who were dhamma mahamatta?

Answer: Dhamma mahamatta were special officers appointed by Asoka to spread the message of dhamma.

15. Who were the Shakas?

Answer: The Shakas were a people of Central Asian origin who established kingdoms in the north-western and western parts of the subcontinent and ruled in the northwest around c. 100 BCE-200 CE.

16. Define gahapati.

Answer: A gahapati was the owner, master or head of a household, who exercised control over the women, children, slaves and workers who shared a common residence. He was also the owner of the resources – land, animals and other things – that belonged to the household. Sometimes the term was used as a marker of status for men belonging to the urban elite, including wealthy merchants.

17. What is a votive inscription?

Answer: Votive inscriptions record gifts made to religious institutions.

18. What were shrenis?

Answer: Shrenis were organisations of craft producers and merchants, also referred to as guilds. These guilds probably procured raw materials, regulated production, and marketed the finished product.

19. Define numismatics.

Answer: Numismatics is the study of coins, including visual elements such as scripts and images, metallurgical analysis and the contexts in which they have been found.

20. What were punch-marked coins?

Answer: Punch-marked coins, made of silver and copper from around the sixth century BCE onwards, were amongst the earliest coins to be minted and used. They are so named because symbols were punched or stamped onto the metal surface.

21. What does the title ‘devaputra’ mean?

Answer: The title devaputra means “son of god”.

22. What materials were used for early inscriptions?

Answer: Early inscriptions were writings engraved on hard surfaces such as stone, metal, or pottery. Some inscriptions were on stone, but most were on copper plates.

23. What did early inscriptions usually record?

Answer: Early inscriptions usually record the achievements, activities, or ideas of those who commissioned them and include the exploits of kings, or donations made by women and men to religious institutions.

24. Name any four important mahajanapadas.

Answer: Four important mahajanapadas were Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, and Kuru.

25. What were megaliths and what purpose did they serve?

Answer: Megaliths were elaborate stone structures that emerged in central and south India from the first millennium BCE as new modes of disposal of the dead. In many cases, the dead were buried with a rich range of iron tools and weapons within these structures.

26. Name the two capital cities of Magadha at different times.

Answer: Initially, Rajagaha (the Prakrit name for present-day Rajgir in Bihar) was the capital of Magadha. Later, in the fourth century BCE, the capital was shifted to Pataliputra, present-day Patna.

27. What are the sources used to reconstruct Mauryan history?

Answer: Historians have used a variety of sources to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire. These include archaeological finds, especially sculpture. Also valuable are contemporary works, such as the account of Megasthenes (a Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya), which survives in fragments. Another source that is often used is the Arthashastra, parts of which were probably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya. Besides, the Mauryas are mentioned in later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literature, as well as in Sanskrit literary works. While these are useful, the inscriptions of Asoka (c. 272/268-231 BCE) on rocks and pillars are often regarded as amongst the most valuable sources.

28. What were the functions of the Mauryan military committees?

Answer: Megasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees for coordinating military activity. Of these, one looked after the navy, the second managed transport and provisions, the third was responsible for foot-soldiers, the fourth for horses, the fifth for chariots and the sixth for elephants. The activities of the second subcommittee were rather varied: arranging for bullock carts to carry equipment, procuring food for soldiers and fodder for animals, and recruiting servants and artisans to look after the soldiers.

29. Why did Kushana rulers install colossal statues of themselves?

Answer: Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found installed in a shrine at Mat near Mathura (Uttar Pradesh) and in a shrine in Afghanistan. Some historians feel this indicates that the Kushanas considered themselves godlike. The notions of kingship they wished to project are perhaps best evidenced in their coins and sculpture. One means of claiming high status was to identify with a variety of deities, and this strategy is best exemplified by the Kushanas. Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title devaputra, or “son of god”, possibly inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves sons of heaven.

30. What agricultural technique was introduced to increase paddy production?

Answer: In some parts of the Ganga valley, production of paddy was dramatically increased by the introduction of transplantation, although this meant back-breaking work for the producer.

31. Why were wells and tanks important for agriculture?

Answer: Wells and tanks were important as a strategy adopted to increase agricultural production through the use of irrigation.

32. How did gahapatis exercise control over other cultivators?

Answer: Large landholders, who were often designated by the term gahapati in Pali texts, emerged as powerful figures and often exercised control over other cultivators. A gahapati was also the owner, master or head of a household, exercising control over the women, children, slaves and workers who shared a common residence, and the owner of resources like land and animals belonging to the household.

33. Who were vellalar, uzhavar and adimai?

Answer: In the villages mentioned in early Tamil literature (the Sangam texts), vellalar were large landowners, uzhavar were ploughmen, and adimai were slaves.

34. What are agraharas?

Answer: An agrahara was land granted to a Brahmana, who was usually exempted from paying land revenue and other dues to the king, and was often given the right to collect these dues from the local people.

35. Name any two cities that emerged near land or river routes.

Answer: Pataliputra, which was on riverine routes, and Ujjayini, which was along land routes, were two major towns located along routes of communication.

36. What goods were traded from the Malabar coast?

Answer: From the Malabar coast (present-day Kerala), pepper was exported in great quantity. Besides pepper, great quantities of fine pearls, ivory, silk cloth, transparent stones of all kinds, diamonds and sapphires, and tortoise shell were also exported. Imported goods included a great quantity of coin, topaz, antimony (a mineral used as a colouring substance), coral, crude glass, copper, tin, and lead.

37. What evidence exists of bead-making in early India?

Answer: Archaeological evidence of a bead-making industry, using precious and semi-precious stones, has been found in Kodumanal (Tamil Nadu).

38. What were the Indo-Greek contributions to Indian coinage?

Answer: The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, who established control over the north-western part of the subcontinent around the second century BCE. Finds of coins from Indo-Greek kings contain the names of kings written in Greek and Kharosthi scripts, which facilitated the decipherment of Kharosthi.

39. What problems do historians face when reading inscriptions?

Answer: Historians face several problems when reading inscriptions. Sometimes, there are technical limitations, such as letters being very faintly engraved, making reconstructions uncertain. Inscriptions may also be damaged or have letters missing. Furthermore, it is not always easy to be sure about the exact meaning of the words used, as some may be specific to a particular place or time, leading scholars to constantly debate alternative ways of reading inscriptions. Although several thousand inscriptions have been discovered, not all have been deciphered, published, and translated. Many more inscriptions likely existed but have not survived the ravages of time, meaning what is available today is probably only a fraction of what was originally inscribed. Another fundamental problem is that not everything considered politically or economically significant was necessarily recorded; for instance, routine agricultural practices and the details of daily existence are often absent. Inscriptions tend to focus on grand, unique events and almost invariably project the perspective of the person(s) who commissioned them, requiring juxtaposition with other perspectives for a better understanding.

40. What is palaeography?

Answer: Palaeography refers to the styles of writing used in inscriptions, which can be used to date them with a fair amount of precision.

41. Who was Prabhavati Gupta?

Answer: Prabhavati Gupta was the daughter of one of the most important rulers in early Indian history, Chandragupta II (c. 375-415 CE). She was married into another important ruling family, that of the Vakatakas, who were powerful in the Deccan. According to Sanskrit legal texts, women were not supposed to have independent access to resources such as land. However, an inscription indicates that Prabhavati had access to land, which she then granted. This may have been because she was a queen and her situation was therefore exceptional, or possibly that the provisions of legal texts were not uniformly implemented.

42. Explain the factors that helped Magadha become a powerful mahajanapada.

Answer: Modern historians explain the development of Magadha as the most powerful mahajanapada between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE in a variety of ways. These factors are:

• Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
• Iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand) were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
• Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the region.
• The Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.
• Early Buddhist and Jaina writers attributed its power to the policies of individuals: ruthlessly ambitious kings like Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda, and their ministers, who helped implement their policies.

43. What are the features of oligarchic states in early India?

Answer: Some mahajanapadas, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies. An oligarchy refers to a form of government where power is exercised by a group of men. In these states, power was shared by a number of men, often collectively called rajas. Both Mahavira and the Buddha belonged to such ganas. In some instances, as in the case of the Vajji sangha, the rajas probably controlled resources such as land collectively.

44. Describe the characteristics of the Mauryan administrative centres.

Answer: There were five major political centres in the Mauryan empire: the capital Pataliputra and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri, all mentioned in Asokan inscriptions. It is likely that administrative control was strongest in areas around the capital and these provincial centres. These centres were carefully chosen; both Taxila and Ujjayini were situated on important long-distance trade routes, while Suvarnagiri (literally, the golden mountain) was possibly important for tapping the gold mines of Karnataka. Communication along both land and riverine routes was vital for the existence of the empire, and journeys from the centre to the provinces could have taken weeks if not months.

45. What functions did the dhamma mahamatta perform?

Answer: Asoka tried to hold his empire together by propagating dhamma, the principles of which were simple and virtually universally applicable, meant to ensure the well-being of people in this world and the next. Special officers, known as the dhamma mahamatta, were appointed to spread the message of dhamma.

46. How did Kushana rulers project their authority?

Answer: One means of claiming high status used by Kushana rulers was to identify with a variety of deities. This strategy is best exemplified by the Kushanas (c. first century BCE-first century CE), who ruled over a vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to northwest India. The notions of kingship they wished to project are perhaps best evidenced in their coins and sculpture. Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found installed in a shrine at Mat near Mathura (Uttar Pradesh), and similar statues have been found in a shrine in Afghanistan as well. Some historians feel this indicates that the Kushanas considered themselves godlike. Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title devaputra, or “son of god”, possibly inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves sons of heaven. The first gold coins were issued c. first century CE by the Kushanas.

47. What is the role of prashastis in reconstructing Gupta history?

Answer: Histories of the Gupta rulers have been reconstructed from literature, coins and inscriptions, including prashastis, composed in praise of kings in particular, and patrons in general, by poets. While historians often attempt to draw factual information from such compositions, those who composed and read them often treasured them as works of poetry rather than as accounts that were literally true. The Prayaga Prashasti (also known as the Allahabad Pillar Inscription) composed in Sanskrit by Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta, arguably the most powerful of the Gupta rulers (c. fourth century CE), is a case in point.

48. Describe the differences within rural society as mentioned in early texts?

Answer: There was a growing differentiation amongst people engaged in agriculture. Stories, especially within the Buddhist tradition, refer to landless agricultural labourers, small peasants, as well as large landholders. The term gahapati was often used in Pali texts to designate the second and third categories (small peasants and large landholders). The large landholders, as well as the village headman (whose position was often hereditary), emerged as powerful figures, and often exercised control over other cultivators. Early Tamil literature (the Sangam texts) also mentions different categories of people living in the villages – large landowners or vellalar, ploughmen or uzhavar and slaves or adimai. It is likely that these differences were based on differential access to land, labour and some of the new technologies.

49. What were the purposes of land grants and who received them?

Answer: From the early centuries of the Common Era, we find grants of land being made, many of which were recorded in inscriptions, generally about grants to religious institutions or to Brahmanas. Some historians feel that land grants were part of a strategy adopted by ruling lineages to extend agriculture to new areas. Others suggest that land grants were indicative of weakening political power: as kings were losing control over their samantas, they tried to win allies by making grants of land. They also feel that kings tried to project themselves as supermen because they were losing control: they wanted to present at least a façade of power. An agrahara was land granted to a Brahmana, who was usually exempted from paying land revenue and other dues to the king, and was often given the right to collect these dues from the local people.

50. What roles did women like Prabhavati Gupta play in early Indian polity?

Answer: According to Sanskrit legal texts, women were not supposed to have independent access to resources such as land. However, the inscription indicates that Prabhavati Gupta had access to land, which she then granted. This may have been because she was a queen (one of the few known from early Indian history), and her situation was therefore exceptional. It is also possible that the provisions of legal texts were not uniformly implemented. In her inscription, Prabhavati Gupta commands the gramakutumbinas (householders/peasants living in the village), Brahmanas and others living in the village of Danguna and donates the village to increase her religious merit.

51. Describe the growth of urban centres from the sixth century BCE.

Answer: Urban centres emerged in several parts of the subcontinent from c. sixth century BCE. Many of these were capitals of mahajanapadas. Virtually all major towns were located along routes of communication. Some, such as Pataliputra, were on riverine routes. Others, such as Ujjayini, were along land routes, and yet others, such as Puhar, were near the coast, from where sea routes began. Many cities like Mathura were bustling centres of commercial, cultural and political activity.

52. What kind of artefacts have been found in early historical cities?

Answer: A wide range of artefacts have been recovered from early historical cities. These include fine pottery bowls and dishes, with a glossy finish, known as Northern Black Polished Ware, probably used by rich people, and ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines, made of a wide range of materials – gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.

53. What roles did guilds play in early Indian towns?

Answer: Guilds or shrenis, which were organisations of craft producers and merchants, are mentioned in early Indian towns. These guilds probably procured raw materials, regulated production, and marketed the finished product.

54. How did riverine and land routes facilitate trade in early India?

Answer: From the sixth century BCE, land and river routes criss-crossed the subcontinent and extended overland into Central Asia and beyond, and overseas from ports that dotted the coastline – extending across the Arabian Sea to East and North Africa and West Asia, and through the Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia and China. These routes were traversed by peddlers likely travelling on foot and merchants travelling with caravans of bullock carts and pack-animals, as well as seafarers undertaking risky but profitable ventures. Rulers often attempted to control these routes, possibly by offering protection for a price. A wide range of goods were carried from one place to another along these routes, including salt, grain, cloth, metal ores and finished products, stone, timber, and medicinal plants. Spices, especially pepper, textiles, and medicinal plants were transported across the Arabian Sea to the Mediterranean, indicating the facilitation of extensive trade networks.

55. Describe the political and economic developments between sixth and fourth century BCE?

Answer: Between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE, significant political and economic developments took place. This era marked a turning point with the emergence of early states, empires, and kingdoms, notably the sixteen mahajanapadas such as Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, and Avanti. While most were ruled by kings, some were oligarchies (ganas or sanghas). Magadha rose to prominence as the most powerful mahajanapada between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE, attributed to factors like productive agriculture, accessible iron mines, forest elephants for the army, convenient communication via the Ganga, and policies of ambitious rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatasattu. Capital cities like Rajagaha, and later Pataliputra (from the fourth century BCE), were established and often fortified. To manage these states and nascent armies and bureaucracies, resources were required. From c. sixth century BCE, Brahmanas composed Sanskrit Dharmasutras, advising rulers (ideally Kshatriyas) to collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders, and artisans. Raids on neighbours were also recognised as a means to acquire wealth. Some states developed standing armies and regular bureaucracies. Economically, this period witnessed the growing use of iron, the development of coinage, including punch-marked coins, the introduction of paddy transplantation, leading to increased agricultural production, and significant urbanisation, especially in the Ganga valley, with new towns appearing across the subcontinent.

56. Discuss the major features of Mauryan administration?

Answer: The Mauryan Empire had five major political centres: the capital Pataliputra and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri, all mentioned in Asokan inscriptions. Administrative control was likely strongest in areas around the capital and the provincial centres. These centres were carefully chosen; Taxila and Ujjayini were situated on important long-distance trade routes, while Suvarnagiri was possibly important for tapping the gold mines of Karnataka.

Communication along both land and riverine routes was vital for the existence of the empire. The army was an important means for ensuring protection for those travelling and for maintaining control. Megasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees for coordinating military activity. These subcommittees managed the navy, transport and provisions, foot-soldiers, horses, chariots, and elephants. The second subcommittee had varied tasks: arranging bullock carts for equipment, procuring food for soldiers and fodder for animals, and recruiting servants and artisans to look after soldiers. According to Greek sources, the Mauryan ruler had a standing army of 600,000 foot-soldiers, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 elephants, though some historians consider these accounts exaggerated. The Arthashastra details administrative and military organisation, including how to capture elephants using guards, tamers, and female elephants as bait.

Megasthenes also described the functions of some great officers of state. Some supervised rivers, measured land, and inspected sluices for water distribution from canals. Others had charge of huntsmen, with powers of reward and punishment. Officials also collected taxes and supervised occupations connected with land, such as woodcutters, carpenters, blacksmiths, and miners.

Asoka tried to hold his empire together by propagating dhamma, appointing special officers known as the dhamma mahamatta to spread its message. He also claimed to have made arrangements for pativedakas (reporters) to report to him about the affairs of the people at all times, wherever he might be, so he could dispose of the affairs of the people everywhere. However, given the vastness and diversity of the empire, from the hilly terrain of Afghanistan to the coast of Orissa, it is unlikely that the administrative system was uniform throughout.

57. How did Asoka use inscriptions to communicate his ideas?

Answer: Asoka was the first ruler who inscribed his messages to his subjects and officials on stone surfaces – natural rocks as well as polished pillars. He used the inscriptions to proclaim what he understood to be dhamma. This included respect towards elders, generosity towards Brahmanas and those who renounced worldly life, treating slaves and servants kindly, and respect for religions and traditions other than one’s own. Most Asokan inscriptions were in the Prakrit language, primarily written in the Brahmi script. However, in the northwest, some were in Aramaic and Greek, and some Prakrit inscriptions used the Kharosthi script.

In his inscriptions, Asoka often used the titles devanampiya (“beloved of the gods”) and piyadassi (“pleasant to behold”) instead of his name, which is mentioned only in a few inscriptions containing these same titles. Epigraphists concluded these inscriptions were issued by the same ruler by matching content, style, language, and palaeography. One inscription details Asoka’s orders for pativedakas (reporters) to inform him about public affairs constantly. Another famous inscription describes the king’s anguish and repentance after conquering Kalinga, marking his devotion to the study and instruction of Dhamma. While these inscriptions are found across a vast area, historians question whether everyone could read them, understand the Prakrit of Pataliputra, or if the king’s orders were always followed. Notably, the inscription depicting Asoka’s anguish over Kalinga is missing from Orissa, the conquered region itself.

58. Explain the key features of agricultural transformation in early India.

Answer: A major feature was the shift to plough agriculture, which spread in fertile alluvial river valleys like those of the Ganga and Kaveri from around the sixth century BCE. The use of the iron-tipped ploughshare helped turn alluvial soil in areas with high rainfall. However, its use was restricted; cultivators in semi-arid areas like Punjab and Rajasthan did not adopt it until the twentieth century, and those in hilly tracts in the northeast and central parts practised hoe agriculture, which was better suited to the terrain.

Another strategy was the use of irrigation through wells, tanks, and less commonly, canals. Communities and powerful individuals, including kings, organised the construction of irrigation works, sometimes recording these activities in inscriptions. For example, the Sudarshana lake in Gujarat, an artificial reservoir with embankments and water channels, was initially built by a local governor during Mauryan rule and later repaired by rulers like Rudradaman and a Gupta king.

In some parts of the Ganga valley, the production of paddy was dramatically increased by the introduction of transplantation, where seeds are first broadcast, and then saplings are transplanted into waterlogged fields. This ensured a higher survival rate and yield but involved back-breaking work.

These technologies led to increased production, but the benefits were uneven, resulting in growing differentiation among people engaged in agriculture. Buddhist tradition and Pali texts refer to landless agricultural labourers, small peasants, and large landholders. The term gahapati often designated small peasants and landholders. Large landholders and village headmen (whose position was often hereditary) emerged as powerful figures, exercising control over other cultivators. Early Tamil Sangam literature also mentions different categories: vellalar (large landowners), uzhavar (ploughmen), and adimai (slaves), likely based on differential access to land, labour, and new technologies.

From the early centuries of the Common Era, land grants were made, often recorded in inscriptions on stone or copper plates, usually given to religious institutions or Brahmanas. These grants varied regionally, from small plots to vast uncultivated areas, with differing rights given to recipients. Some historians see these grants as a strategy by ruling lineages to extend agriculture to new areas or as indicative of weakening political power, where kings tried to win allies by granting land.

59. What are the major features of urban development in early India?

Answer: Urban centres emerged in several parts of the subcontinent from around the sixth century BCE. Many of these were capitals of mahajanapadas. Virtually all major towns were located along routes of communication – some, like Pataliputra, were on riverine routes; others, like Ujjayini, were along land routes; and yet others, like Puhar, were near the coast, from where sea routes began. Cities like Mathura became bustling centres of commercial, cultural, and political activity.

Kings and ruling elites lived in fortified cities. Extensive excavations are difficult at many sites because people still live there today. However, a wide range of artefacts have been recovered. These include fine pottery bowls and dishes with a glossy finish, known as Northern Black Polished Ware, likely used by rich people. Other finds include ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, and figurines made from a wide variety of materials such as gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell, and terracotta.

By the second century BCE, short votive inscriptions found in several cities mention donors and their occupations. These tell us about people who lived in towns, including washing folk, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials, religious teachers, merchants, and kings. Organisations of craft producers and merchants, known as guilds or shrenis, are also mentioned. These guilds probably procured raw materials, regulated production, and marketed finished products. It is likely that craftspersons used a range of iron tools to meet the growing demands of urban elites.

Cities had histories; for instance, Pataliputra began as a village (Pataligrama), became the Magadhan capital shifted from Rajagaha in the fifth century BCE, grew into a major Asian city as the Mauryan capital by the fourth century BCE, but its importance later declined.

60. Discuss the trade routes and commodities involved in long-distance trade.

Answer: From the sixth century BCE onwards, land and river routes criss-crossed the Indian subcontinent and extended in various directions. Overland routes went into Central Asia and beyond. Overseas routes originated from ports dotting the coastline, extending across the Arabian Sea to East and North Africa and West Asia, and through the Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia and China. Rulers often attempted to control these routes, possibly by offering protection for a price.

People who traversed these routes included peddlers travelling on foot and merchants travelling with caravans of bullock carts and pack-animals. There were also seafarers, whose ventures were risky but highly profitable. Successful merchants, known as masattuvan in Tamil and setthis and satthavahas in Prakrit, could become enormously rich.

A wide range of goods were carried from one place to another. Commodities included salt, grain, cloth, metal ores and finished products, stone, timber, and medicinal plants. Spices, especially pepper, textiles, and medicinal plants were in high demand in the Roman Empire and were transported across the Arabian Sea to the Mediterranean. The Malabar coast (present-day Kerala), according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. first century CE), exported large quantities of pepper and malabathrum (possibly cinnamon). Other exports from this region included fine pearls, ivory, silk cloth, transparent stones of all kinds, diamonds, sapphires, and tortoise shell. Imports into these market towns included a great quantity of coin, topaz, antimony, coral, crude glass, copper, tin, and lead. Archaeological evidence from Kodumanal (Tamil Nadu) indicates a bead-making industry using precious and semi-precious stones, which local traders likely brought to coastal ports. Trade networks were not confined within political boundaries; for example, south India, though not part of the Roman Empire, had close connections through trade, evidenced by hoards of Roman coins found there. Gold coins, issued first by the Kushanas and later spectacularly by the Guptas, facilitated long-distance transactions.

Additional MCQs

1. Which material is the Harappan seal made from?

A. Granite
B. Steatite
C. Marble
D. Limestone

Answer: B. Steatite

2. What kind of script is found on Harappan seals?

A. Alphabetical
B. Pictographic
C. Undeciphered
D. Cuneiform

Answer: C. Undeciphered

3. What does “c.” stand for in dating?

A. circa
B. confirmed
C. century
D. continuous

Answer: A. circa

4. The Harappan civilisation is also known as which culture?

A. Vedic
B. Mesopotamian
C. Indus valley
D. Egyptian

Answer: C. Indus valley

5. What are the dates for the Mature Harappan culture?

A. 2600–1900 BCE
B. 3000–2500 BCE
C. 1900–1500 BCE
D. 1500–1000 BCE

Answer: A. 2600–1900 BCE

6. Which term describes a group of distinctive objects from a specific area and time?

A. Civilization
B. Culture
C. Tradition
D. Legacy

Answer: B. Culture

7. Which item is NOT a typical Harappan artefact?

A. Beads
B. Weights
C. Stone blades
D. Iron tools

Answer: D. Iron tools

8. Which region is not mentioned as yielding Harappan artefacts?

A. Afghanistan
B. Jammu
C. Baluchistan
D. Bengal

Answer: D. Bengal

9. What evidence indicates a break between Early and Mature Harappan phases?

A. Earthquake layers
B. Large-scale burning
C. Flood deposits
D. Volcanic ash

Answer: B. Large-scale burning

10. Which grain was commonly found at Harappan sites?

A. Rice
B. Wheat
C. Maize
D. Oats

Answer: B. Wheat

11. Which grain is relatively rare in Harappan sites?

A. Wheat
B. Barley
C. Rice
D. Lentil

Answer: C. Rice

12. Which domesticated animal is confirmed from Harappan bones?

A. Elephant
B. Goat
C. Lion
D. Horse

Answer: B. Goat

13. Who studies ancient plant remains at Harappan sites?

A. Historians
B. Archaeo-botanists
C. Geologists
D. Physicists

Answer: B. Archaeo-botanists

14. What evidence suggests the use of oxen for ploughing?

A. Stone statues
B. Terracotta plough
C. Metal tools
D. Wall paintings

Answer: B. Terracotta plough

15. At which site was a ploughed field with two furrow sets found?

A. Mohenjodaro
B. Harappa
C. Kalibangan
D. Lothal

Answer: C. Kalibangan

16. Where were irrigation canals discovered in the Harappan civilisation?

A. Punjab
B. Sind
C. Shortughai
D. Gujarat

Answer: C. Shortughai

17. Which artefact evidences food processing in Harappan society?

A. Querns
B. Mugs
C. Coins
D. Mirrors

Answer: A. Querns

18. What are the stones used in dual-stone querns for pounding herbs called?

A. Rolling stone
B. Curry stone
C. Millstone
D. Pounding stone

Answer: B. Curry stone

19. Mohenjodaro is divided into which two sections?

A. Upper and Lower
B. East and West
C. Citadel and Lower Town
D. North and South

Answer: C. Citadel and Lower Town

20. Who was the first Director-General of the ASI?

A. Wheeler
B. Cunningham
C. Marshall
D. Dales

Answer: B. Cunningham

21. How many person-days were estimated to move earth for Lower Town foundations?

A. Two million
B. Three million
C. Four million
D. Five million

Answer: C. Four million

22. What standard ratio were Harappan bricks made in?

A. 3:2:1
B. 4:2:1
C. 5:2:1
D. 6:3:1

Answer: B. 4:2:1

23. What pattern did Harappan streets follow?

A. Circular
B. Spiral
C. Grid
D. Random

Answer: C. Grid

24. What was a key feature of Harappan domestic architecture?

A. Courtyard centre
B. Glass windows
C. Open roofs
D. Towers

Answer: A. Courtyard centre

25. Approximately how many wells were in Mohenjodaro?

A. 500
B. 600
C. 700
D. 800

Answer: C. 700

26. The Great Bath was made watertight using which mortar?

A. Lime
B. Gypsum
C. Cement
D. Clay

Answer: B. Gypsum

27. In burials, which items were sometimes included for use in the afterlife?

A. Weapons
B. Pottery
C. Jewellery
D. Coins

Answer: C. Jewellery

28. Which material was considered precious and often found in hoards?

A. Copper
B. Bronze
C. Faience
D. Gold

Answer: D. Gold

29. Which settlement was devoted almost exclusively to craft production?

A. Mohenjodaro
B. Harappa
C. Chanhudaro
D. Kalibangan

Answer: C. Chanhudaro

30. Which stone used for beads is noted for its red colour after firing?

A. Quartz
B. Jasper
C. Carnelian
D. Crystal

Answer: C. Carnelian

31. Which specialised tool was found at Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira?

A. Drills
B. Axes
C. Hammers
D. Saws

Answer: A. Drills

32. From which region was lapis lazuli procured?

A. Gujarat
B. Afghanistan
C. Rajasthan
D. Punjab

Answer: B. Afghanistan

33. Which texts refer to copper coming from a region called Magan?

A. Rigveda
B. Mesopotamian texts
C. Bible
D. Gilgamesh

Answer: B. Mesopotamian texts

34. What system did lower denomination Harappan weights follow?

A. Decimal
B. Binary
C. Ternary
D. Quaternary

Answer: B. Binary

35. Approximately how many signs does the Harappan script contain?

A. 100
B. 200
C. 375–400
D. 500

Answer: C. 375–400

36. In which direction was the Harappan script written?

A. Left to right
B. Top to bottom
C. Right to left
D. Diagonally

Answer: C. Right to left

37. What is the term for the occupational debris that builds up at ancient sites?

A. Layers
B. Mounds
C. Terraces
D. Deposits

Answer: B. Mounds

38. Who announced the discovery of the Harappan civilisation in 1924?

A. Cunningham
B. Marshall
C. Wheeler
D. Dales

Answer: B. Marshall

39. Who later corrected excavation methods by emphasising stratigraphy?

A. Cunningham
B. Marshall
C. Wheeler
D. Rao

Answer: C. Wheeler

40. In Early Indian Archaeology, what is the Chalcolithic period dated to?

A. 2 million BP
B. 80,000 BP
C. 10,000 BP
D. 6,000 BP

Answer: D. 6,000 BP

41. In Timeline 2, which year marks the beginning of excavations at Mohenjodaro?

A. 1921
B. 1925
C. 1946
D. 1955

Answer: B. 1925

42. In Timeline 2, who began excavations at Lothal?

A. M.S. Vats
B. S.R. Rao
C. B.B. Lal
D. R.S. Bisht

Answer: B. S.R. Rao

43. What did John Marshall’s excavation method ignore?

A. Stratigraphy
B. Mapping
C. Preservation
D. Carbon dating

Answer: A. Stratigraphy

44. Which type of artefact is most likely to be preserved in Harappan sites?

A. Wood
B. Cloth
C. Stone
D. Leather

Answer: C. Stone

45. Which artefact is worshipped as a symbol of Shiva?

A. Quern
B. Seal
C. Linga
D. Bead

Answer: C. Linga