Political and Economic History: NBSE Class 12 (Arts) History notes

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Get summary, textual answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF to NBSE Class 12 (Arts) History (Themes in Indian History) chapter “Political and Economic History: How Inscriptions Tell a Story”. However, the educational materials should only be used for reference and students are encouraged to make necessary changes.

Introduction

Political and economic history are intricately linked, and in ancient India, we can trace this connection through inscriptions. Inscriptions are a valuable source of information that historians use to understand the past. In the case of ancient India, inscriptions provide a glimpse into the political and economic history of the region.

After the Rig Vedic Age, there is a dearth of material on the condition of the north-western territories of India. However, the Buddhist sources tell us about sixteen great states (Mahajanapadas) in India, but only two states of the north-west India, namely, the Gandhara and Kamboj are mentioned in this list. There were also many small states in the north-west in the 6th century BC, but we do not even know their names. For many centuries, this region remained aloof from the Gangetic plains politically as well as culturally.

In the east, Magadha had risen to be a very powerful state during the rule of Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, and the nine Nanda rulers. In 325 BC, Chandra Gupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda dynasty of Magadha and laid the foundation of the Mauryan Empire in India. From the sixth century BC (approximately), there were visible trends of the emergence of the early states, empires, and kingdoms. Underlying these political developments, some changes in the agricultural organization are also evident. Besides, simultaneously new towns were also appearing throughout the subcontinent.

To understand these developments, historians drew material from different sources such as inscriptions, coins, texts, and visual material. However, these sources do not provide the complete picture. In the 1830s, some significant developments took place in the study of Indian inscriptions when James Prinsep, an officer in the mint of the East India Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, the two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions and coins. He discovered that most of the inscriptions referred to a king as Piyadassi, meaning “pleasant to behold.” He also found some inscriptions which referred to the king as Ashoka, one of the great rulers known from the Buddhist texts.

This discovery opened up new avenues for historians to study ancient India’s political history. They began to use inscriptions and texts composed in various languages to reconstruct the lineage of the important dynasties that had ruled in the subcontinent. By the early twentieth century, the broad contours of political history of ancient India were in place.

Next, the scholars began to focus on the context of political history and investigate whether there were connections between political changes and socio-economic developments. This process was not simple and direct. Nevertheless, inscriptions played a crucial role in this investigation. Inscriptions provide information about land grants, taxes, trade, and commerce. For example, the inscriptions of the Mauryan period reveal a highly centralized system of administration that imposed taxes on various economic activities.

Inscriptions also provide insights into social and religious practices. For instance, inscriptions tell us about the construction of stupas, temples, and other religious monuments. They provide information about the donors and the social and economic status of the people who contributed to these constructions.

Textual questions and answers

Very Short Answer Questions

1. What is the importance of the 6th century B.C. in the history of ancient India?

Answer: The historians regard the sixth century as a significant turning point in early Indian history. This era witnessed the rise of early states, cities, the growing use of iron, the development of coinage, etc. This period also saw the rise of many religious sects. But only Jainism and Buddhism have survived until today.

2. Why is James Princep’s contribution considered as the historic development in the Indian epigraphy?

Answer: James Prinsep, an officer in the mint of East India Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, the two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions and coins. He discovered that most of the inscriptions referred to a king as Piyadassi, meaning “pleasant to behold”.

3. What were guilds? What was their position in the economic system during the Mauryan rule?

Answer: The craftsmen were organised into guilds or shrenis. There are references about the guilds of weavers, braziers, oil-millers, bamboo workers, corn dealers, ivory workers. The organisation of guilds gave to craftsmen political and economic power. The goods were sold under the supervision of the government officers and a tax of 10 per cent was levied on the sales.

4. Who was Varahamihira? What was his contribution to the science of astronomy?

Answer: The other notable astronomer of the period was Varahamihira. In his Panchasidhanta, he has given a description of the five systems of astronomy in use in his times. His work on astrology Brihat Samhita is a collection of all available knowledge on technical sciences like architecture, metallurgy, physiognomy, etc.

5. Give the names of any two inscriptions which mention land grants.

Answer: The Damodarpur inscriptions, the Faridpur copper inscriptions.

Short Answers Type Questions

1. “The 6th century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history.” Justify with two arguments.

Answer: The historians regard the sixth century BCE as a significant turning point in early Indian history. This era witnessed the rise of early states, cities, the growing use of iron, the development of coinage, etc. This period also saw the rise of many religious sects. But only Jainism and Buddhism have survived until today.

2. ‘There are limits to what epigraphy can reveal’. Justify this statement.

Answer: But there are certain limits to what epigraphy can reveal. Sometimes, there are technical limitations: letters are very faintly engraved, and thus reconstructions are uncertain. Also, inscriptions may be damaged or letters missing. Besides, it is not always easy to be sure about the exact meaning of the words used in inscriptions, some of which may be specific to a particular place or time. If you go through an epigraphical journal, you will realise that scholars are constantly debating and discussing alternative ways of reading inscriptions.

3. Explain the sources used by historians to reconstruct the history of Mauryan empire.

Answer: As we enter the Mauryan period, the history of India gains interest owing to the discovery of many historical accounts which are reliable. Besides the Buddhist and Jaina religious books, we have discovered historical accounts left by the foreigners, inscriptions, coins and monuments for extracting and reconstructing an almost correct history of the period. Megasthenes left an interesting record “Indica” of his stay at the court of Chandragupta Maurya between 320-298 BCE. Kautilya’s “Arthashastra” is another important source of Mauryan history. It is believed that he was the minister of Mauryan ruler. The “Mudra-Rakshasa” written by Vaishakha Datta in the 5th century CE gives an account of how Chandragupta overthrew the Nandas. The Jaina and Buddhist and Puranic literature also throw light on the history of the Mauryas. The inscriptions of Junagarh and Ashoka’s (about 272/268-231 BCE) inscriptions on rocks and pillars are among the most useful sources.

4. “The mid first millennium BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in world history”. Justify.

Answer: The historians regard the sixth century BCE as a significant turning point in early Indian history. This era witnessed the rise of early states, cities, the growing use of iron, the development of coinage, etc. This period also saw the rise of many religious sects. But only Jainism and Buddhism have survived until today. The texts of these religions, besides mentioning other things, refer to sixteen states known as Mahajanapadas (settlements of clans or tribes). Although the names given in the texts vary, some names such as Avanti, Vasta, Kosala, Magadha, Kuru and Panchala occur frequently. It seems that these Mahajanapadas were more powerful than the others. All these states were situated in the valleys of the Ganges and the Yamuna.

5. Describe the economic and social conditions of the people living in rural areas from c. 600 BCE to 600 CE.

Answer: The stability of the Mauryan empire depended on agriculture, trade, and commerce. Agriculture was the main occupation, with many small landlords. Large tracts of land were reclaimed using slaves and laborers. Chandragupta Maurya built the Sudarshana Lake for irrigation. The money lending class supported agricultural growth by providing loans, leading to the development of new villages.

Animal husbandry was also important. Shepherds and herdsmen, considered Shudras in the Varna system, reared cows, buffaloes, goats, and sheep. Crafts and industry grew with trade, and artisans organized into guilds. These guilds had political and economic power, selling goods under government supervision and paying a 10% tax on sales.

Lower classes included potters, weavers, barbers, dancers, and Chandalas, who were excluded from the Varna system. People led moral lives, rarely locked doors, and had a high standard of living. Women held a high status but polygamy was common in aristocratic families. The caste system was well-developed, with Brahmanas enjoying the highest position, performing religious rites, and practicing astrology.

Long Answers Questions

1. Describe how the inscriptions open the doors of history.

Answer: Inscriptions are writings usually inscribed on hardstone or metal, either as official documents by kings and authorities or records made by private persons for various purposes. They are engraved on pillars, rocks, walls of caves, copper plates, and stones in many Indian languages like Sanskrit, Pali, Tamil, Telugu, etc. These inscriptions provide information about common people and shed light on the social, economic, and religious conditions of the times. They often contain details about reigning kings and their ancestors and are typically dated, making them invaluable for unfolding ancient Indian history that spans thousands of years. The beginning of epigraphical studies, or the study of inscriptions, can be traced to the end of the 18th century, due to the efforts of western scholars. The epigraphical branch of the Archaeological Survey of India was established in AD 1886 to track down, copy, and chronologically edit the texts of numerous copper plates and stone inscriptions believed to be scattered across the Indian subcontinent. The German Indologist E. Hultzsch served as the first government epigraphist. The first fascicules of the well-known journal “Epigraphia Indica” were published in October AD 1887. On a rough estimate, nearly 1,00,000 inscriptions have been discovered throughout the subcontinent. These inscriptions are significant because the scripts of all Indian languages, except Urdu, are derived from a common source, the mother script Brahmi, found in Ashoka’s edicts and inscriptions. While the tradition of writing in India can be traced to the third millennium BC with the pictographic cum ideographic writings on the seals and sealings of the Indus Valley Civilization, the history of decipherable Indian writing begins only in the Mauryan period.

2. Explain the main features of Mauryan administration and explain the principles of Ashoka’s Dhamma.

Answer: Central Government – The King: At the apex of the whole administration was the emperor, the fountainhead of all authority. His powers were unlimited. He was the lawgiver, the supreme judge, the commander of the army, and the chief executive. With the expansion of the Mauryan Empire, the functions and powers of the king further increased.

Duties of King’s Officials: The king appointed men of high character and wisdom as his ministers. They were of two ranks: Mantris (senior ministers and chief advisors) and Amatyas (executive officers working under the Mantris).

Provincial Administration: The Mauryan Empire was divided into provinces. In Ashoka’s time, five provinces are mentioned: the Northern Province with its capital at Taxila, the Western Province with its capital at Ujjayini, the Southern Province with its capital at Swarnanagri, the Kalinga province with its capital at Tosali, and the Central Province with its capital at Pataliputra. Governors were generally princes of royal blood styled as Kumara or Aryaputra.

Local Administration: Provinces were divided into districts called Janapadas, each with officials like Pradesika, Rajuka, and Yukta. Cities were divided into wards, each with its own court of justice and a city superintendent assisted by a board of thirty members in places like Pataliputra.

Ashoka’s Dhamma: Ashoka held that his people could not be truly happy unless they led a moral life. Morality was necessary for true happiness. He picked up well-known ethical principles common to all religions and styled them as Dhamma. These principles, inscribed on rocks, included respect for elders, proper treatment of juniors, truthfulness, charity, non-violence, toleration, and kindness to slaves and servants. Ashoka’s edicts stressed respect for teachers, proper treatment of friends, relatives, slaves, and servants, and reverence to all sects. Ashoka appointed Dhamma Mahamatta, officers to propagate these values. They toured the empire to ensure the Emperor’s policies were implemented among all classes and creeds.

3. Explain the agricultural practices followed by the cultivators to increase productivity from c. 600 BCE to 600 CE.

Answer: Agricultural Practices:

• The introduction of iron tools, such as ploughshares, helped in bringing more land under cultivation.
• Paddy transplantation was introduced in the Ganga valley, increasing rice yield significantly.
• Farmers used various techniques like crop rotation and multiple cropping to enhance soil fertility and maximize output.
• Irrigation systems were developed, including wells, tanks, and canals, to ensure water supply to crops. For example, the Sudarshana Lake in Gujarat was an important source of irrigation.
• The use of organic manure, such as cow dung, and other natural fertilizers improved soil fertility.
• Farmers practiced mixed farming, combining crop cultivation with animal husbandry, which provided manure and draft power for agriculture.

4. Explain the characteristics of Mahajanapadas and explain Magadha as the most powerful Janapada.

Answer: Characteristics of Mahajanapadas:

• Sixteen Mahajanapadas emerged in the 6th century BCE, located mainly in the fertile regions of the Ganges and Yamuna valleys.
• Each Mahajanapada had a capital city, often fortified, indicating the need for defense and administrative control.
• Most Mahajanapadas were monarchies, while some, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies where power was shared among a group of influential people.
• These states maintained standing armies and bureaucracies to administer their territories.
• They collected taxes from cultivators, traders, and artisans to maintain the state machinery and fortified cities.

Magadha:

• Magadha became the most powerful Mahajanapada between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, comprising present-day Patna and Gaya districts in Bihar.
• It had several advantages: natural defenses with hills surrounding its capital, fertile lands watered by the Ganges and the Sone rivers, and accessible iron mines for tools and weapons.
• Magadha’s power was also attributed to its ambitious kings like Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, and Mahapadma Nanda, who implemented strategic policies with their ministers’ help.
• Initially, the capital was at Rajagaha (Rajgir), later shifted to Pataliputra (Patna), strategically located along the Ganges for trade and communication.

5. There is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions. Discuss.

Answer: Inscriptions in ancient India provide a comprehensive view of various aspects of life, culture, and activities. They contain records of political events, achievements of rulers, donations and grants to religious institutions, and public welfare activities. The inscriptions reveal details about social hierarchy, economic conditions, and religious practices. They mention the construction of infrastructure like tanks, wells, and canals, indicating the importance of water management in agriculture. Inscriptions also reflect cultural activities, such as the patronage of arts, literature, and education by the ruling elites. Thus, inscriptions serve as a vital source of information about the multifaceted life of ancient Indians.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Who was the founder of the Mauryan dynasty?

A. Chandragupta Maurya
B. Ashoka
C. Vikramaditya
D. Ajatshatru

Answer: A. Chandragupta Maurya

2. According to the sources of Ashoka, he spread the idea of:

A. Dhamma
B. Knowledge
C. Scholars
D. Education

Answer: A. Dhamma

3. Who won the battle with Kalinga?

A. Kautilya
B. Chandragupta Maurya
C. Bimbisara
D. Ashoka

Answer: D. Ashoka

4. What title was used by most of the Kushana rulers?

A. Devputra
B. Devtulya
C. Devraj
D. Devnaam

Answer: A. Devputra

5. Identify the best reason for considering King Ashoka as ‘Devanampiya’ and ‘Piyadassi’ by his subjects.

A. Ashoka commissioned the edicts himself.
B. He adopted the title of ‘Devaputra’.
C. Epigraphists have concluded him as Devanampiya.
D. He did well being of society through Dhamma.

Answer: D. He did well being of society through Dhamma.

Competency-based Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following statements about Mahajanapadas are correct?

I. Mahajanapadas were Magadha, Koshala, Gandhara, and Avanti only.
II. Most Mahajanapadas were ruled by kings.
III. Some, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies ruled under rajas.
IV. Each Mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified.

Options:

A. I, II & III
B. II, III, IV
C. I, III, & IV
D. I, II & IV

Answer: B. II, III, IV

2. He was called as ‘Devanampiya’ and ‘Piyadassi’. He ruled the Indian subcontinent from 268 to 232 BCE. He is remembered for the propagation of Dhamma. Who among the following ruler has been described in the above information?

A. Ashoka
B. Chandragupta Maurya
C. Samudra Gupta
D. Ajatshatru

Answer: A. Ashoka

3. Which one of the following is a correct pair?

LIST-I Rulers	LIST-II Regions
A. Cholas	Tamil Nadu
B. Hoysalas	Orissa
C. Sulta	Karnataka
D. Gajapati	Deccan

Answer: A. Cholas—Tamil Nadu

4. Consider the following statements regarding Magadha:

(i) Magadha was the most powerful mahajanapada.
(ii) Initially, Pataliputra was the capital of Magadha and later it was shifted to Rajagriha.
(iii) Elephants were found in abundance in the forests of Magadha.

Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?

A. (i) and (ii)
B. (ii) and (iii)
C. (i) and (iii)
D. All of the above

Answer: C. (i) and (iii)

5. Match the columns:

Column A	Column B
(i) Rule of Asoka	(A) 327 BC
(ii) Beginning of the Gupta period	(B) 272 BC
(iii) Attack of Alexander	(C) 500 BC
(iv) Magadh becoming powerful	(D) 320 BC

Options:

A. (i) (D) (ii) (A), (iii) (C), (iv) (B)
B. (i) (A) (ii) (B), (iii) (C), (iv) (D)
C. (i) (B) (ii) (D), (iii) (A), (iv) (C)
D. (i) (C) (ii) (B), (iii) (D), (iv) (A)

Answer: C. (i) (B) (ii) (D), (iii) (A), (iv) (C)

6. Which of the following are the major literary sources to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire?

(i) Arthashastra of Kautilya
(ii) Work of Megasthenes, a Greek Ambassador
(iii) Buddhist, Jaina and Pauranic literature
(iv) Meghaduta of Kalidasa

Options:

A. (i), (ii) & (iii)
B. (ii), (iii), (iv)
C. (i), (ii) & (iv)
D. All of the above

Answer: A. (i), (ii) & (iii)

7. Which of the following statements is incorrect regarding records?

A. The writings which are found on the metal, stone, or mud artifacts are known as records.
B. It contains information, achievements, and chronological events of the people who have ordered to make it.
C. The records are only written in Prakrit script.
D. The records are basically a testament of that period.

Answer: C. The records are only written in Prakrit script.

8. Which of the following statements is incorrect regarding the headman?

A. Headman is a powerful person.
B. It is not a hierarchical position.
C. The supporters of a Headman are his family.
D. He meets people who are below him.

Answer: B. It is not a hierarchical position.

9. Match the right pairs:

Dynasty	Ruler
(i) Sunga	(a) Bindusar
(ii) Kushana	(b) Pushyamitra
(iii) Maurya	(c) Sri Gupta
(iv) Gupta	(d) Kanishka

Options:

A. (i) (a), (ii) (b), (iii) (c), (iv) (d)
B. (i) (b), (ii) (d), (iii) (a), (iv) (c)
C. (i) (c), (ii) (a), (iii) (d), (iv) (b)
D. (i) (d), (ii) (c), (iii) (b), (iv) (a)

Answer: B. (i) (b), (ii) (d), (iii) (a), (iv) (c)

Assertion-Reason Questions

The following questions consist of two statements-Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Answer these questions selecting the appropriate option given below:

(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but R is not the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.

1. Assertion (A): Archaeological sources are generally more reliable than literary sources.

Reason (R): There are little scopes for tampering with archaeological sources than literary sources.

Answer: (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

2. Assertion (A): Emperor Ashoka has repeatedly talked about heaven and described himself as Devanampiya.

Reason (R): Emperor Ashoka’s Dhamma was a form of Brahmin religion.

Answer: (c) (A) is true but (R) is false.

Case-based Questions

A1. Which part of India became an important centre of foreign trade in ancient time?

Answer: South India

A2. Which item was imported in South India?

Answer: Coins

A3. Which item was exported from Southern India?

Answer: Black Pepper

A4. Name the book written by an anonymous Greek sailor on trade and commerce in Southern India in ancient times?

Answer: Periplus of the Erythraean Sea

B1. How did Queen Prabhavati Gupta try to earn religious merit?

Answer: By donating the village of Danguna to the Acharya (teacher) Chanalasvamin with the pouring out of water.

B2. Explain the unusual aspect of the Land Grant.

Answer: The village was granted exemptions typical of an agrahara, including exemption from soldiers and policemen entering, providing grass, hides, charcoal, purchasing fermenting liquors, digging salt, rights to mines and khadira trees, supplying flowers and milk, and included hidden treasures and deposits with major and minor taxes.

B3. What does this inscription tell us about the relationship between the state and the ordinary people? Explain.

Answer: The inscription indicates that the state had the power to confer significant privileges and exemptions to individuals or institutions, showing a relationship where the state could influence local governance and economy by granting autonomy and fiscal benefits to certain beneficiaries. It reflects a hierarchical system where the state’s decisions directly impacted the daily lives and responsibilities of ordinary people in the village.

Extra/additional MCQs

1. In what year did Chandra Gupta Maurya overthrow the Nanda dynasty?

A. 327 BC
B. 325 BC
C. 323 BC
D. 321 BC

Answer: D. 321 BC

Q. Which officer deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts in the 1830s?

A. James Prinsep
B. Alexander Cunningham
C. Max Müller
D. William Jones

Answer: A. James Prinsep

Q. What was the ancient capital of Magadha before it was shifted to Pataliputra?

A. Patna
B. Gaya
C. Rajagaha
D. Vaishali

Answer: C. Rajagaha

Q. Who was the ruler of Magadha after Chandragupta Maurya?

A. Ashoka
B. Bimbisara
C. Ajatashatru
D. Bindusara

Answer: D. Bindusara

Q. What did Ashoka vow after the Kalinga war?

A. To expand his empire further
B. To promote Buddhism
C. Not to resort to war for conquest
D. To invade Sri Lanka

Answer: C. Not to resort to war for conquest

Q. In which century did Magadha become the most powerful Mahajanapada?

A. 8th century BC
B. 7th century BC
C. 6th century BC
D. 5th century BC

Answer: C. 6th century BC

Q. Which text composed by Kautilya is an important source of Mauryan history?

A. Arthashastra
B. Indica
C. Mudra-Rakshasa
D. Dharamshastras

Answer: A. Arthashastra

Q. Who was known as Piyadassi in the inscriptions deciphered by James Prinsep?

A. Bimbisara
B. Ajatashatru
C. Ashoka
D. Chandragupta Maurya

Answer: C. Ashoka

Q. Which religious texts refer to the sixteen Mahajanapadas?

A. Vedas
B. Upanishads
C. Buddhist texts
D. Ramayana

Answer: C. Buddhist texts

Q. Who was the king of Magadha during the rise of Jainism and Buddhism?

A. Bimbisara
B. Ajatashatru
C. Mahapadma Nanda
D. Chandra Gupta Maurya

Answer: A. Bimbisara

Q. What was the primary means of acquiring wealth according to the Dharamshastras?

A. Trade
B. Agriculture
C. Raids on neighboring states
D. Mining

Answer: C. Raids on neighboring states

Q. Which ruler shifted the capital of Magadha to Pataliputra?

A. Ashoka
B. Chandragupta Maurya
C. Bimbisara
D. Ajatashatru

Answer: D. Ajatashatru

Q. Which ruler’s reign is documented through inscriptions on rocks and pillars?

A. Bimbisara
B. Ajatashatru
C. Ashoka
D. Bindusara

Answer: C. Ashoka

Q. What were the Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts primarily used for?

A. Writing religious texts
B. Recording historical events
C. Inscribing on coins and early inscriptions
D. Educating the masses

Answer: C. Inscribing on coins and early inscriptions

Q. In which modern-day state was the ancient kingdom of Magadha located?

A. Uttar Pradesh
B. Bihar
C. West Bengal
D. Odisha

Answer: B. Bihar

Q. Which Mauryan capital was the central hub of administration?

A. Taxila
B. Pataliputra
C. Ujjayini
D. Suvarnagiri

Answer: B. Pataliputra

Q. What was the significance of Suvarnagiri in the Mauryan Empire?

A. Trade
B. Military
C. Gold mines
D. Cultural centre

Answer: C. Gold mines

Q. Who was at the apex of the Mauryan administration?

A. The Prime Minister
B. The Governor
C. The King
D. The Commander-in-Chief

Answer: C. The King

Q. How many provinces are mentioned during Ashoka’s reign?

A. Three
B. Four
C. Five
D. Six

Answer: C. Five

Q. Which official was directly responsible to the emperor in the Mauryan district administration?

A. Rajuka
B. Pradesika
C. Gramini
D. Yukta

Answer: B. Pradesika

Q. What was the primary occupation of people during the Mauryan Empire according to Megasthenes?

A. Artisans
B. Agriculture
C. Trade
D. Military

Answer: B. Agriculture

Q. What significant construction did Chandragupta Maurya build for irrigation?

A. Grand Canal
B. Sudarshana Lake
C. Great Wall of India
D. Mauryan Dam

Answer: B. Sudarshana Lake

Q. Which text by Kautilya is an important source of information on Mauryan administration?

A. Indica
B. Arthashastra
C. Mudra-Rakshasa
D. Dharamshastras

Answer: B. Arthashastra

Q. What profession did Kautilya place at the third position in the list of professional classes?

A. Artisans
B. Shepherds and herdsmen
C. Traders
D. Soldiers

Answer: B. Shepherds and herdsmen

Q. What was the highest official position under the Mauryan administration?

A. Amatya
B. Mantri
C. Mahamatra
D. Pradesika

Answer: C. Mahamatra

Q. What was the primary function of the Mauryan spies?

A. Trade negotiations
B. Military training
C. Monitoring government officers
D. Tax collection

Answer: C. Monitoring government officers

Q. What was the primary weapon of the Mauryan army?

A. Bow and arrow
B. Sword
C. Gunpowder
D. Crossbow

Answer: B. Sword

Q. Which script did Ashoka use for his inscriptions in the Gandhara region?

A. Brahmi
B. Kharosthi
C. Devanagari
D. Tamil

Answer: B. Kharosthi

Q. What material did Ashoka first use for constructing pillars?

A. Wood
B. Brick
C. Stone
D. Metal

Answer: C. Stone

Q. What is necessary for true happiness according to Ashoka?

A. Wealth
B. Power
C. Morality
D. Education

Answer: C. Morality

Q. Where are the principles of Dhamma preached by Ashoka found?

A. His books
B. Rock inscriptions
C. Temples
D. Scrolls

Answer: B. Rock inscriptions

Q. What does the Second Minor Rock Edict emphasize respecting?

A. Laws
B. Living creatures
C. Wealth
D. Authority

Answer: B. Living creatures

Q. What did Ashoka call the principles of ethics common to all religions?

A. Dharma
B. Karma
C. Dhamma
D. Vedas

Answer: C. Dhamma

Q. Which Rock Edict mentions respecting all sects?

A. Rock Edict I
B. Rock Edict III
C. Rock Edict VII
D. Rock Edict IX

Answer: C. Rock Edict VII

Q. What did Ashoka compare all men to in one of his edicts?

A. His subjects
B. His friends
C. His children
D. His disciples

Answer: C. His children

Q. What special officers did Ashoka appoint to preach Dhamma?

A. Priests
B. Soldiers
C. Dhamma Mahamatta
D. Scribes

Answer: C. Dhamma Mahamatta

Q. In which Rock Edict did Ashoka mention appointing Dhamma officers?

A. Rock Edict X
B. Rock Edict XI
C. Rock Edict XII
D. Rock Edict XIII

Answer: D. Rock Edict XIII

Q. Which empire served as a bridge between north and south India in commerce?

A. Mauryan
B. Satavahanas
C. Gupta
D. Pallava

Answer: B. Satavahanas

Q. Who is regarded as the real founder of the Gupta Empire?

A. Sri Gupta
B. Ghatotkacha
C. Chandragupta I
D. Samudragupta

Answer: C. Chandragupta I

Q. Which Gupta ruler was known for playing the lyre on his coins?

A. Chandragupta I
B. Samudragupta
C. Chandragupta II
D. Skandagupta

Answer: B. Samudragupta

Q. Which Gupta ruler was known as Vikramaditya?

A. Samudragupta
B. Chandragupta II
C. Kumaragupta
D. Skandagupta

Answer: B. Chandragupta II

Q. Who was the last great king of the Gupta dynasty?

A. Chandragupta I
B. Samudragupta
C. Skandagupta
D. Kumaragupta

Answer: C. Skandagupta

Q. Which invaders attacked the Gupta Empire in AD 512?

A. Huns
B. Greeks
C. Persians
D. Mongols

Answer: A. Huns

Q. What was the smallest administrative unit in the Gupta Empire?

A. Desa
B. Bhukti
C. Vishya
D. Grama

Answer: D. Grama

Q. Who was the headman of a village in the Gupta Empire?

A. Uparika
B. Bhogika
C. Grameyaka
D. Kumaramitya

Answer: C. Grameyaka

Q. What was the role of the Purapala in Gupta town administration?

A. Military leader
B. Tax collector
C. Town administrator
D. Judge

Answer: C. Town administrator

Q. Who assisted the Purapala in town administration?

A. Village council
B. Parishad
C. Bhogika
D. Uparika

Answer: B. Parishad

Q. What helped in the growth of trade and commerce under the Gupta emperors?

A. Roads
B. Ports
C. Coins
D. Ships

Answer: C. Coins

Q. Which coast did the Guptas use for their sea-borne trade?

A. East Coast
B. West Coast
C. North Coast
D. South Coast

Answer: B. West Coast

Q. What were the principal articles of internal trade during the Gupta period?

A. Weapons
B. Horses
C. Cloth, foodgrains, spices, salt, bullion, and precious stones
D. Tools

Answer: C. Cloth, foodgrains, spices, salt, bullion, and precious stones

Q. Which port was the principal port of Bengal during the Gupta period?

A. Kalyani
B. Broach
C. Kambay
D. Tamralipti

Answer: D. Tamralipti

Q. What was the major item of export from India during the Gupta period?

A. Gold
B. Textiles
C. Horses
D. Silver

Answer: B. Textiles

Q. What was the purpose of the guilds during the Gupta period?

A. Military training
B. Religious activities
C. Economic regulation
D. Educational instruction

Answer: C. Economic regulation

Q. What was the rate of interest charged by guilds during the Gupta period?

A. 10%
B. 15%
C. 20%
D. 25%

Answer: C. 20%

Q. Which foreign invader’s accounts provide information about the social condition of the Gupta age?

A. Alexander the Great
B. Fa-Hien
C. Marco Polo
D. Ibn Battuta

Answer: B. Fa-Hien

Q. What was a significant social practice regarding the untouchables during the Gupta period?

A. They lived in the city
B. They held high offices
C. They dwelled apart and announced their presence
D. They were assimilated into society

Answer: C. They dwelled apart and announced their presence

Q. What was the societal status of Brahmanas during the Gupta period?

A. Low status
B. Greatest respect
C. Equal to Vaishyas
D. Traders and artisans

Answer: B. Greatest respect

Q. Which system continued to be a feature of Hindu private life during the Gupta age?

A. Individual family
B. Joint family
C. Nuclear family
D. Extended family

Answer: B. Joint family

Q. What was a common custom among royal families for widows during the Gupta period?

A. Remarriage
B. Isolation
C. Sati
D. Monastic life

Answer: C. Sati

Q. What was the role of teachers known as during the Gupta age?

A. Gurus
B. Pandits
C. Acharyas or Upadhayas
D. Monks

Answer: C. Acharyas or Upadhayas

Q. Which university became a famous center of higher education during the later Gupta period?

A. Taxila
B. Nalanda
C. Benaras
D. Pataliputra

Answer: B. Nalanda

Q. Who is regarded as the most important astronomer of the Gupta Age?

A. Varahamihira
B. Brahmagupta
C. Aryabhatta
D. Kalidasa

Answer: C. Aryabhatta

Q. Which pillar stands as a testament to the metallurgical skill of the Gupta Age?

A. Ashoka Pillar
B. Sarnath Pillar
C. Mehrauli Pillar
D. Sanchi Pillar

Answer: C. Mehrauli Pillar

Q. Which temple is known for its beginning of Shikhara style architecture?

A. Dasavtara Temple
B. Shiva Temple at Bhumara
C. Parvati Temple at Nachna-Kuthara
D. Deogarh Temple

Answer: D. Deogarh Temple

Q. Which Buddhist cave paintings are considered the climax of Indian art during the Gupta Age?

A. Sanchi
B. Ajanta
C. Bagh Caves
D. Ellora

Answer: B. Ajanta

Q. Which religion experienced a revival and transformation into modern Hinduism during the Gupta period?

A. Buddhism
B. Jainism
C. Brahmanism
D. Zoroastrianism

Answer: C. Brahmanism

Q. Which type of coins were among the earliest to be minted and used in ancient India?

A. Gold coins
B. Punch-marked coins
C. Bronze coins
D. Lead coins

Answer: B. Punch-marked coins

Q. Who were the first to issue coins bearing the names and images of rulers in ancient India?

A. Mauryas
B. Guptas
C. Indo-Greeks
D. Kushans

Answer: C. Indo-Greeks

Q. Which group was the first to issue gold coins in India?

A. Mauryas
B. Indo-Greeks
C. Kushans
D. Guptas

Answer: C. Kushans

Q. What does the widespread use of gold coins during the Kushan period indicate?

A. Limited trade networks
B. Wealth of the Roman Empire
C. Confined political boundaries
D. Extensive trade networks

Answer: D. Extensive trade networks

Q. Which dynasty’s rulers issued gold coins remarkable for their purity?

A. Mauryas
B. Guptas
C. Kushans
D. Indo-Greeks

Answer: B. Guptas

Q. What did the lack of discovered gold coins from the sixth century onwards suggest to some historians?

A. Economic prosperity
B. Economic crisis
C. Increase in trade
D. Stability of the state

Answer: B. Economic crisis

Q. What are inscriptions usually inscribed on?

A. Paper
B. Cloth
C. Stone or metal
D. Wood

Answer: C. Stone or metal

Q. What is the study of inscriptions called?

A. Numismatics
B. Archaeology
C. Epigraphy
D. Paleography

Answer: C. Epigraphy

Q. Which script is found in the edicts and inscriptions of Ashoka?

A. Kharosthi
B. Devanagari
C. Brahmi
D. Tamil

Answer: C. Brahmi

Q. What did the inscriptions of Ashoka reveal about his transformation?

A. Influence of Jainism
B. Influence of Buddhism
C. Influence of Hinduism
D. Influence of Zoroastrianism

Answer: B. Influence of Buddhism

Q. Which inscription provides information about the repair of Sudarshana Lake?

A. Allahabad Pillar inscription
B. Junagarh Rock inscription
C. Ashokan Edicts
D. Sanchi Stupa inscription

Answer: B. Junagarh Rock inscription

Q. What is a limitation of inscriptional evidence mentioned in the text?

A. Always accurate
B. Easy to interpret
C. Technical limitations and damage
D. Covers daily agricultural practices

Answer: C. Technical limitations and damage

Q. What type of records are “Dana-sasanas”?

A. Royal edicts
B. Donative records
C. Heroes stones
D. Religious edicts

Answer: B. Donative records

Q. Which empire’s decline affected long-distance trade and economic prosperity, as suggested by fewer coins being found?

A. Gupta Empire
B. Mauryan Empire
C. Roman Empire
D. Kushan Empire

Answer: C. Roman Empire

80. Who was the first government epigraphist for the Archaeological Survey of India?

A. E.Hultzach
B. Ashoka
C. Samudragupta
D. Chandragupta II

Answer: A. E.Hultzach

Extra/additional questions and answers

1: Which two states of north-west India are mentioned in the list of sixteen great states (Mahajanapadas) according to Buddhist sources?

Answer: Gandhara and Kamboj.

2: What was the significance of the sixth century BC in early Indian history?

Answer: The historians regard the sixth century as a significant turning point in early Indian history. This era witnessed the rise of early states, cities, the growing use of iron, the development of coinage, etc. This period also saw the rise of many religious sects. But only Jainism and Buddhism have survived until today. The texts of these religions, besides mentioning other things, refer to sixteen states known as Mahajanapadas (settlements of clans or tribes). Although the names given in the texts vary, some names such as Avanti, Vasta, Kosala, Magadha, Kuru and Panchala occur frequently. It seems that these Mahajanapadas were more powerful than the others. All these states were situated in the valleys of the Ganges and the Yamuna.

Q: Who deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts in the 1830s?

Answer: James Prinsep.

Q: What did James Prinsep discover about the inscriptions referring to a king as Piyadassi?

Answer: He discovered that most of the inscriptions referred to a king as Piyadassi, meaning “pleasant to behold”. He also found some inscriptions which referred to the king Ashoka, one of the great rulers known from the Buddhist texts.

Q: What kind of sources do historians use to study early Indian political history?

Answer: Historians use various sources such as inscriptions, coins, texts, and visual material to study early Indian political history.

Q: What advantages did Magadha have over other Mahajanapadas?

Answer: Magadha had several advantages over other Mahajanapadas. It had a sort of natural defense due to the hills surrounding its ancient capital Giriviraha. The fertile lands, watered by the rivers such as the Ganges and the Sone, yielded rich harvests. Facilitated by the Ganges, the prosperity of Magadha increased by trade and commerce. Besides, iron mines were accessible and provided material for making tools and weapons. However, early Buddhists and Jainas, who wrote about this Mahajanapada, attributed its power to the policies of individuals. The ruthlessly ambitious kings like Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, and Mahapadma Nanda are the best known, who with the help of their ministers, implemented their policies.

Q: Which king established the Mauryan Empire by overthrowing the Nanda dynasty in Magadha?

Answer: Chandragupta Maurya.

Q: What was Ashoka’s approach to conquest after the battle of Kalinga?

Answer: The large-scale manslaughter, bloodshed, and loss of property caused in the terrible battle of Kalinga changed the mind and heart of Ashoka. He vowed not to resort to war for the conquest of territories. Instead, he decided to make Dharmavijaya, the conquest through the propagation of Dharma. The tribals inhabiting the territories to the south of Mysore accepted his suzerainty. He established friendly relations with the ruler of Sri Lanka in the south and with the successors of Seleucus in north-west India. In this way, from Bengal to Afghanistan and from Hindukush to Mysore, the whole of India came under the rule of the Mauryas.

Q: What is one of the key sources of information about Ashoka’s reign?

Answer: The inscriptions of Junagarh and Ashoka’s inscriptions on rocks and pillars are among the most useful sources.

Q: How did Ashoka use inscriptions during his reign?

Answer: The story of Ashoka’s reign is largely built on the inscriptions of his time. He was the first Indian ruler who got inscribed his messages to his subjects and officers on rocks, pillars, and caves. He used the inscriptions to make the people understand what he meant by Dhamma. They included respect for elders, proper treatment of juniors, truthfulness, charity, ahimsa, toleration, kindness to the slaves and servants, etc.

Q: What are the five major political centres mentioned in Ashoka’s inscriptions?

Answer: Ashoka’s inscriptions mention five major political centres in the empire. They were the capital, Pataliputra, and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri.

Q: How strong was the administrative control of the central government in the Mauryan Empire?

Answer: The administrative control of the central government was probably very strong in the areas around the capital and the provincial centres. The central control on Taxila and Ujjain was strong because they were important long-distance trade routes. Suvarnagiri was important probably for tapping gold mines in Karnataka.

Q: What was the role of James Prinsep in the study of Indian inscriptions?

Answer: James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, the two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions and coins. He discovered that most of the inscriptions referred to a king as Piyadassi, meaning “pleasant to behold”. He also found some inscriptions which referred to the king Ashoka, one of the great rulers known from the Buddhist texts.

Q: What was the role of the emperor in the Mauryan administration?

Answer: At the apex of the whole administration was the emperor, who was the fountain-head of all authority. His powers were unlimited. He was the law giver, the supreme judge, the commander of the army, and the chief executive. He was trained to fulfill these responsibilities. With the expansion of the Mauryan empire, the functions and powers of the king further increased.

Q: How were the provinces of the Mauryan Empire administered?

Answer: For efficient administration, the Mauryans had divided the Empire into provinces. In the time of Ashoka, five provinces are mentioned: the Northern Province with its capital at Taxila, the Western Province with its capital at Ujjayini, the Southern Province with its capital at a place called Swarnanagri, the Kalinga province with its capital at Tosali, and the home or the Central Province with their capital at Pataliputra. The Governor of each province was styled as Kumara or Aryaputra and was generally a prince of royal blood. The vast Mauryan empire must have included, besides the imperial provinces, a number of conquered states left more or less autonomous on a feudatory basis. The term Sangha applied by Kautilya to Saurashtra, Kamboja and the several clans in the Punjab, probably indicates that these were self-governing states.

Q: What were the three important officials in the district administration of the Mauryan Empire?

Answer: The district was called Janapada. It had three important officials namely, Pradesika, Rajuka, and Yukta. The Pradesika was directly responsible to the Samrat and was to supervise the work of various departments within their own territorial spheres. The Rajukas were appointed over many hundreds and thousands of people. Originally they were revenue officers, but they also exercised judicial functions. Ashoka had granted them greater freedom both in the investigation of crimes and their punishments.

Q: How were the cities in the Mauryan Empire administered?

Answer: For administrative purposes, the cities were divided into a number of wards. Every city had its own court of justice, where the judge was assisted by a number of non-official jurors. In some cities like Pataliputra, the city Superintendent was, according to Megasthenes, assisted by a board of thirty members divided into five sub-committees. Cities were well protected by moats and fortification. The moat of Pataliputra, the capital, was 100 ft. wide and 80 ft. deep; the water of the Son was made to flow through it. There was a wall surrounding the city with 64 gates and 570 towers. The archers were posted at the towers who could prevent the enemies from attacking the city.

Q: What was the role of the Gramini in village administration during the Mauryan Empire?

Answer: The village administration was under a Gramini who was assisted by a council of village elders. The office work was done by Gopa, who used to keep a careful record about the number of households and their inmates, the extent, boundary and ownership of fields and gardens, crops grown upon them, the taxes due from them and the condition of roads, watercourses, inns, temples, etc. Village elders used to settle petty civil disputes. The other cases were decided by a court consisting of three officials and three jurors.

Q: What was the Mauryan espionage system like?

Answer: The espionage system of the Mauryas was elaborate and efficient. Kautilya lays much stress on the espionage system in his book Arthashastra. The king appointed a large number of trusted secret service men to keep a watch on the conduct of the officers of the government. Ascetics, jugglers, bards, prostitutes, fortune-tellers, etc., were employed as spies. Ashoka also attached much importance to the reports of the spies. Although the people disliked the espionage system, it was the only means to keep the Government informed about the state of public opinion.

Q: What were the main features of Mauryan art and architecture?

Answer: The Mauryans made a remarkable contribution to art and architecture. The contemporary accounts of Pataliputra and its royal palaces throw light on the progress of art and architecture of this period. But as most of these buildings were made of wood, they could not survive the ravages of time. Ashoka was the first king to use stone for building. He got constructed stone pillars which are a marvel of engineering and sculpture. They were probably constructed by the sculpturists from Gandhara who were skilled in the art of stone carving. The figures of lions of the Ashoka pillar are wonderfully life-like, revealing the perfect carving. The caves cut out of hard rock represent patient skill and enormous patience. Of these, the Sudama cave is famous. Some pieces of Mauryan art are found at Dhauli in Odisha. An elephant carved in the round on a rock shows a sense of creative form. The building of boats and ships as well as the construction of chariots are mentioned in the Arthashastra. It seems that toy elephants and medals round in shape used as ornaments were also made.

Q. What was Ashoka’s view on the relationship between morality and happiness?

Answer: Ashoka held that his people could not be really happy unless they led a highly moral life. Morality was a necessary condition for the attainment of true happiness.

Q. What did Ashoka call the well-known principles of ethics common to all religions?

Answer: Ashoka styled the well-known principles of ethics common to all religions as Dhamma.

Q. Where are the principles of Dhamma preached by Ashoka found?

Answer: The principles of Dhamma preached by Ashoka are found on his rock inscriptions.

Q. What does the Second Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka state about obedience and respect?

Answer: The Second Minor Rock Edict states, “Father and mother must be obeyed, similarly respect for living creatures must be enforced, truth must be spoken. Similarly, the teacher must be respected by the pupil and the proper courtesy must be shown to the relatives. This is the ancient standard of piety.”

Q. What does Ashoka say about hearkening and proper treatment in another rock inscription?

Answer: In another rock inscription, Ashoka says, “Hearkening to superiors, hearkening to father and mother, hearkening to teachers (or elders), and proper treatment of friends, acquaintances, comrades, relatives, slaves and servants with satisfaction of devotion.”

Q. What do Ashoka’s edicts show about his spirit towards other religions?

Answer: Ashoka’s edicts are full of passages which show his spirit of tolerance towards other religions.

Q. What does one of Ashoka’s Edicts say about his desires for all men?

Answer: An Edict says, “All men are my children and just as I desire for my children that they may enjoy every kind of prosperity and happiness, in both this world and the next, so also I desire the same for all men.”

Q. What do Rock Edicts III and XI ask people to do?

Answer: Rock Edicts III and XI ask the people to be liberal to Brahmanas and Sramans.

Q. What does Rock Edict VII state about the king’s reverence?

Answer: Rock Edict VII states that “The king does reverence to men of all sects, whether ascetics or householders by gifts and various forms of reverence.”

Q. What did Ashoka insist on instead of giving any religious dogmas?

Answer: Instead of giving any religious dogmas, Ashoka insisted on the practice of certain simple virtues. He laid stress on the purity of conduct and moral and ethical values of life.

Q. Who were the special class of officers appointed by Ashoka to preach Dhamma?

Answer: Ashoka appointed a special class of officers called dhamma Mahamatta.

Q. What was the main duty of the dhamma Mahamatta?

Answer: The main duty of the dhamma Mahamatta was to work among the people of all classes and creeds. They were to see whether the people and the public servants were carrying out the policy of the Emperor.

Q. How long did Pravarasena rule, and which regions did he control?

Answer: Pravarasena ruled for about 60 years from AD 284 to 344. He ruled over modern Berar and Madhya Pradesh.

Q. Who was the founder of the Vakataka dynasty?

Answer: The founder of the Vakataka dynasty was Vindhyashakti.

Q. What was the turning point in the history of the Guptas?

Answer: The most important event of Chandragupta’s career was his marriage with the Lichchhavi princess Kumar Devi. This matrimonial alliance was a turning point in the history of the Guptas.

Q. What did Kumar Devi bring to her husband as dowry?

Answer: Kumar Devi brought to her husband valuable influence as her dowry, which in the course of a few years secured to him a paramount position in Magadha and the neighbouring countries.

Q. How did Samudragupta aim to establish his supremacy?

Answer: Samudragupta aimed to make himself ‘Ekarat’ or the sole ruler. By the eve of his reign, his empire included almost the whole of northern India (except West Punjab, Kashmir, Sindh, Western Rajputana and Gujarat). Several tributary kingdoms surrounded this directly administered area. He was also recognized as a suzerain by the kings of southern India.

Q. How did the Gupta empire change its military system compared to the Mauryas?

Answer: The general structure of the military system of the Guptas did not differ much from that of the Mauryas. However, there were some changes in the Gupta system. The Mahasenapati had contingents of cavalry and elephants divisions for his personal safety. There were several other ranks in the army such as Mahasandhivigrahika and Mahabaladhikaritas. The permanent army was smaller in size during the Gupta age compared to the Mauryan army. The Gupta empire was smaller in size and also depended upon the armies of feudal chiefs in times of war.

Q. How was the administration of towns carried out during the Gupta period?

Answer: Town administration was carried on by a Purapala who enjoyed the status of Kumaramitya. He was appointed by the emperor himself. The Purapala was assisted by a council or Parishad. It helped in the work of administration of taxation and public works. The Shrenis or guilds of traders and artisans also participated in the management of urban administration.

Q. How did the unification of northern India under the imperial Guptas affect trade and commerce?

Answer: The unification of northern India and the benefits of peace and order under the imperial Guptas gave a very great impetus to both internal and overseas commerce. The issue of a large number of gold and silver coins by the Gupta emperors helped in the growth of trade and commerce.

Q. What were the principal articles of internal trade during the Gupta period?

Answer: Different varieties of cloth, food grains, spices, salt, bullion, and precious stones were the principal articles of internal trade.

Q. How was internal trade carried out during the Gupta period?

Answer: Internal trade was carried both by road and river. Chief market towns like Broach, Ujjayini, Pithan, Vidisha, Paryag, Benaras, Gaya, Pataliputra, Vaishali, Kausambhi, Mathura, Ahichhatra, Peshawar were connected by well-protected roads. Traders followed certain well-established routes connecting various parts of the country.

Q. Which were the most favoured land routes for trade during the Gupta period?

Answer: The two land routes most favoured were along the east coast across Jabalpur and west coast via Karwar, Nasik, and Ujjayini.

Q. Describe India’s trade relations with foreign countries during the Gupta period.

Answer: India had brisk trade relations with foreign countries on the west by way of the Persian Gulf and Red Sea as well as the land routes converging on Palmyra and Petra. The conquest of the maritime province of Saurashtra and ports on the Arabian Sea brought the wealth of the Roman Empire into India for the first time through Kalyani, Broach, and Kambay. Tamralipti was the principal port of Bengal, from which extensive trade was carried on with China, Ceylon, Java, and Sumatra.

Q. What were the major items of export and import during the Gupta period?

Answer:

• Major items of export: Textiles, pearls, precious stones, perfumes, incense, spices, indigo, drugs, coconuts, and ivory articles.
• Major items of import: Gold, bullion, coins of silver and copper, lead, silk, camphor, dates, and horses.

Q. How did the shipbuilding industry progress during the Gupta period?

Answer: The shipbuilding industry made considerable progress during the Gupta period, with ships big enough to carry 500 men on high seas engaged in trade with the colonies in the East.

Q. What role did guilds play in the economy of the Gupta period?

Answer: The merchants and traders organized themselves into guilds, which played a big part in the economy of the Gupta period. The guilds fixed the rules of work and wages. Some guilds were also involved in banking business and received permanent deposits guaranteeing regular payment of interest, generally at the rate of 20 per cent.

Q. How was society divided during the Gupta age?

Answer: Society was divided on the basis of the age-old doctrine of four Varnas and the four Ashramas, but freedom was allowed in the choice of profession. There were numerous examples of Brahmanas and Kshatriyas adopting occupations of classes below them and Vaishyas and Sudras following those of classes above them.

Q. Describe the status and living conditions of the Chandalas during the Gupta age.

Answer: Fa-Hien says that in the Madhyadesha, “The Chandalas (outcaste tribes) are named evil men and dwell apart from others; if they enter a city or market, they beat a piece of wood in order to separate themselves, the people after knowing who they are, avoid coming in contact with them.” Hieun Tsang writes that butchers, executioners, scavengers, hunters, fishermen, etc., lived in dwellings lying outside the city.

Q. What privileges did the Kshatriyas enjoy during the Gupta period?

Answer: The Kshatriyas enjoyed high status because of the power and prestige they held. They enjoyed the status of Dvijas (twice born) and had the privilege of Upanayana and Vedic studies.

Q. How was slavery during the Gupta times different from that in Greece and Rome?

Answer: Slavery was prevalent during the Gupta times but not as rigid as in Greece and Rome. Numerous categories of slaves existed, including prisoners of war, slave debtors, loser-gamblers, and female slaves. Slavery in India was not life-long, and liberty could be regained.

Q. What was the role of women during the Gupta age?

Answer: Women enjoyed considerable freedom during the Gupta age. They generally followed the rules for the life of a virtuous wife as sketched in the Dharmashastras. Though polygamy was widely prevalent, women were not permitted to contract a second marriage. The custom of Sati, i.e., burning a widow on the funeral pyre of her husband, was coming into general use among the royal families.

Q. What was the role of private teachers in the system of education during the Gupta age?

Answer: The private teacher was the pivot of the education system during the Gupta age. According to the inscriptions, teachers were known as Acharyas or Upadhayas. Learned Brahman teachers were content with honorariums paid by the guardians of the pupils. Their income was supplemented by their professional earnings as priests and occasional grants and donations from the state and the public. Holy places and capitals of kingdoms like Benaras, Mathura, Nasik, Kanchi, Pataliputra, Vallabhi, and Ujjayini were centers of education.

Q. How did the Buddhist monasteries at Nalanda and Vallabhi develop during the later Gupta period?

Answer: During the later Gupta period, the Buddhist monasteries at Nalanda and Vallabhi developed into famous centers of higher education. Nalanda had become a real university of learning by the end of the 3rd century AD. It was supported out of the produce of 200 villages given as an endowment. Nalanda had six colleges, eight great halls, numerous students (about 10,000), and 300 rooms, making it a significant institution.

Q. Who were some of the notable scholars of the Gupta period and their contributions?

Answer: Notable scholars of the Gupta period included Aryabhatta, Varahamihira, and Brahmagupta. Aryabhatta was the first to treat mathematics as a distinct subject and discovered the principle of the place value of numbers and the use of zero. He declared that the earth was a sphere that revolved around the sun and rotated on its axis. Varahamihira wrote the Panchasidhanta and the Brihat Samhita. Brahmagupta wrote the Brahmasaphuta and Khandakhayaka, dealing with arithmetic, algebra, and geometry.

Q. How did medical sciences progress during the Gupta period?

Answer: Medical sciences were widely studied during the Gupta period. Indian surgeons were well-versed in dissection, plastic surgery, veterinary surgery, and specialized branches such as eye, ear, and nose surgery. The great medical writer of this period was Vagbhata, who wrote Astanga-sangrah, a systematic summary of Charaka and Shruta. Palakapya wrote Hastyaayurveda, a treatise on diseases peculiar to elephants and their treatment.

Q. What does the Mehrauli pillar represent about the metallurgical skill of the Gupta period?

Answer: The famous Mehrauli pillar stands as a silent witness to the excellent skill in working metals of the metallurgists of the Gupta Age. The huge pillar is made of wrought iron, 24 feet high, and weighs 6 tons. It is so skillfully manufactured that despite exposure for centuries to sun and rain, it shows minimal signs of rusting and corrosion.

Q. Which temples and monasteries from the Gupta period have survived?

Answer: Surviving temples and monasteries from the Gupta period include:

• The Dasavtara temple at Deogarh in the Jhansi district.
• The temple at Bhitaragaon near Kanpur.
• The Vishnu temple at Tigawa in Jabalpur district.
• The Shiva temple at Bhumara.
• A beautiful Parvati temple at Nachna-Kuthara.
• Two Buddhist shrines at Sanchi and Bodh Gaya in Jabalpur.

Q. What are some examples of sculptures from the Gupta period?

Answer: Famous sculptures from the Gupta period include the seated Buddha turning the wheel of law or preaching his first sermon, the standing Buddha in the Mathura museum, and the colossal copper statue of Buddha, 7½ feet high, from Sultanganj.

Q. Where are the most celebrated examples of Gupta age paintings found?

Answer: The most celebrated examples of Gupta age paintings are found in the Buddhist caves in Ajanta and Sugiriya in Ceylon, and the Bagh Caves at Gwalior.

Q. What were some of the major contributions of Aryabhatta to science?

Answer: Aryabhatta’s major contributions to science include:

• Treating mathematics as a distinct subject.
• Discovering the principle of the place value of numbers and the use of zero.
• Declaring that the earth is a sphere that revolves around the sun and rotates on its axis.
• Describing the true cause of solar and lunar eclipses and calculating them precisely.
• Providing an accurate calculation of the size of the earth.

Q. How did the Gupta rulers promote Hinduism?

Answer: The Gupta rulers promoted Hinduism by patronizing the construction of temples dedicated to Hindu gods such as Shiva, Vishnu, and the Sun. They granted land to Brahmanas and made donations for the maintenance of temples. Several inscriptions show that the Gupta rulers and their provincial governors granted land and donations to Brahmanas. Brahmanism became supreme and was patronized by the Gupta rulers, with Hinduism becoming the state religion.

Q. What role do coins play in the construction of the history of ancient India?

Answer: Coins are a rich and plentiful source for the construction of the history of ancient India. A large number of coins belonging to the period have been collected from various parts of the country. They present a wide variety of types as shown in their legends, symbols, standard weight, or fabric.

Q. When did the use of punch-marked coins begin in India?

Answer: Silver and copper punch-marked coins began to be minted and used from the sixth century BC onwards.

Q. Who were the first to issue coins with the names and images of rulers in India?

Answer: The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue coins which bore the names and images of the rulers.

Q. Which group was the first to issue gold coins in India, and what was notable about these coins?

Answer: The Kushans were the first to issue gold coins in India. These coins were virtually identical in weight with those issued by contemporary Roman emperors and the Parthian kings of Iran.

Q. What does the widespread use of gold coins during the Kushan period indicate?

Answer: The widespread use of gold coins indicates that networks of trade were not confined within political boundaries.

Q. Which tribal republic issued several thousand copper coins, and what does this indicate?

Answer: The tribal republic of Yaudheyas in Punjab (first century BC) issued several thousand copper coins, indicating their interest and participation in economic exchanges.

Q. How did the Gupta rulers benefit from issuing gold coins?

Answer: The Gupta rulers like Samudragupta and Chandragupta II issued gold coins which were remarkable for their purity. These coins were used for long-distance transactions from which the kings also benefitted.

Q. Why do some historians suggest an economic crisis after the sixth century in India?

Answer: Some historians suggest an economic crisis because archaeologists have not discovered gold coins from the sixth century onwards. It is suggested that with the fall of the Western Roman Empire, long-distance trade received a severe setback, affecting the economic prosperity of the state.

Q. What are inscriptions, and where are they usually inscribed?

Answer: Inscriptions are writings usually inscribed on hard stone or metal. They may be either official documents set forth by the kings and other authorities or records made by private persons for various purposes. They are engraved on pillars, rocks, walls of caves, copper plates, and stone.

Q. How do inscriptions contribute to our understanding of ancient Indian history?

Answer: Inscriptions give information about common people and throw light on the social, economic, and religious conditions of the times. They often contain information about reigning kings and their ancestors, helping to unfold ancient Indian history. The epigraphical information available through inscriptions helps us sketch historical personalities and provides data on the extent of empires, neighboring kingdoms, and people.

Q. Who played a significant role in the early epigraphical studies in India, and when was the epigraphical branch of the Archaeological Survey of India established?

Answer: Western scholars played a significant role in the early epigraphical studies in India. The epigraphical branch of the Archaeological Survey of India was established in AD 1886, with E. Hultzach serving as the first government epigraphist.

Q. Approximately how many inscriptions have been discovered throughout the Indian subcontinent?

Answer: Nearly 100,000 inscriptions have been discovered throughout the Indian subcontinent.

Q. What is the significance of the Brahmi script in Indian inscriptions?

Answer: The Brahmi script is significant because the scripts of all Indian languages, except Urdu, are derived from it. It is found in the edicts and inscriptions of Ashoka.

Q. How were the Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts deciphered?

Answer: The Ashokan inscriptions in Brahmi were deciphered by European scholars with the help of Indian Pandits, working backward from contemporary Bengali and Devnagri scripts. The Kharosthi script was deciphered by comparing the symbols on Indo-Greek coins, which had names in both Greek and Kharosthi scripts.

Q. What are some types of inscriptions based on their contents?

Answer:

• Yup-sasanas (engraved on pillars)
• Partima-sasanas (royal edicts)
• Dana-sasanas (donative records: royal, private, institutional, or religious)
• Kraya-sasanas (edicts of protection)
• Dharma-sasanas (religious edicts)
• Viragngala (heroes stones)
• Mahasatikaala (inscriptions recording cases of self-immolation by bereaved wives)

Q. How did inscriptions help in reconstructing the history of Ashoka?

Answer: The inscriptions help sketch the historical personality of Ashoka, revealing that he was worldly and warlike until the eighth year of his reign. They show that his transformation into a benevolent ruler was due to the influence of Buddhism. Inscriptions also help fix the date of Ashoka and reveal the extent of his empire, as well as information on neighboring kingdoms and people.

79. What are the limitations of inscriptional evidence?

Answer: The limitations include technical issues such as faintly engraved letters, damaged inscriptions, and missing letters, making reconstructions uncertain. The exact meaning of some words can be difficult to determine. Not all inscriptions have been deciphered, published, or translated, and many inscriptions have not survived. Inscriptions may not record routine activities or the daily lives of common people, focusing instead on grand events. The content often reflects the perspective of those who commissioned them, requiring juxtaposition with other perspectives for a better understanding of the past.