Reform: Characteristics & observations: WBBSE Class 10 History

Summary

In the 19th century, Bengal was the centre of the literary world. Bengali newspapers and journals have contributed mightily to the spread of information across India. Hickey’s Bengal Gazette was the first Indian newspaper. It came out in Calcutta in 1780. Bengali journalism dates back to 1818. The Serampore Baptist Mission put out periodicals like “Samachar Darpan” and “Digdarshan.” Under the patronage of Raja Rammohan Roy, “Sambad Kaumudi” was published in 1821. Later, newspapers and magazines like “Hutom Pyanchar Naksha,” “Nil Darpan,” “Hindoo Patriot,” “Grambarta Prakashika,” “Somprakash,” and “Sambad Prabhakar” wrote about the social and political problems of the time. To combat the many oppressive forces targeting women, the “Bamabodhini Patrika” spoke out.

As a company, the English East India Company did not care about the Indians’ academic progress. As the need for high-quality clerks with low salaries grew, the British set up a number of colleges and universities. Lord Wellesley started Fort William College in Calcutta in 1800 so that the city’s young people could get an education.

A significant contribution was made by Christian missionaries to the dissemination of western education. Western education flourished thanks to the work of Rammohan Roy, David Hare, and Radhakanta Deb. In the beginning, the Charter Act of 1813 mandated that the Company allocate one lakh rupees toward improving India’s educational system. The proposed use of such a large sum of money sparked an Anglicist-Orientalist debate. In the end, Bentinck, who supported the English-only education policy, prevailed in 1835.

It wasn’t until 1854 that the famous Education Despatch of Charles Wood appeared, outlining the principle of a “graded educational system from the primary to the university.” The Calcutta Medical College was founded in 1835. Calcutta University was founded in 1857. According to Wood’s Despatch, a commission led by W.W. Hunter was established in 1882, ushering in a pivotal period in the development of western education in India.

Female education was also prioritised and given a boost. In 1849, J.D. Bethune and Vidyasagar established what would become known as Bethune College in Calcutta as an institution dedicated to the education of women. Later, in 1890, the Brahmo Balika Shikshalaya was founded.

Casteism, untouchability, child marriage, polygamy, female infanticide, sati, etc. were just some of the religious and social ills that plagued Bengal in the nineteenth century. In the second half of the 19th century, there were social and religious reform movements that tried to fix what was wrong with society. The social and religious reform movements were led by figures such as Rammohan Roy, Derozio, Keshab Chandra Sen, and Vidyasagar, among many others. They spoke out against society’s harmful norms and practises.

Different Acts were passed to put an end to these evil customs after persistent opposition from the Brahmo Samaj. The Young Bengal, inspired by Derozio’s leadership, brought about an understanding of the need for social and religious changes. A cultural and intellectual reawakening occurred in 19th-century Bengal, comparable to the European Renaissance of the 16th century. Main manifestations of the renaissance in Bengal included the proliferation of newspapers, periodicals, and literary works as well as the introduction of western education and ideas.

In addition to Rammohan Roy, Akshay Kumar Dutta, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, Madhusudan Dutta, Hem Chandra Banerjee, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Dinabandhu Mitra, etc., the history of Bengali literature is filled with illustrious names. Several Bengali scientists, most notably Satyendranath Bose, Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, and Jagadish Chandra Bose, were instrumental in advancing scientific knowledge. Bengal’s part in the modern awakening is akin to Italy’s during the Renaissance in Europe.

Textual Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. Of the following who was the publisher of the Bamabodhini, a Bengali periodical?

(a) Harish Chandra Mukherjee
(b) Umesh Chandra Datta
(c) Madhusudan Roy
(d) Dinabandhu Mitra

Answer: (b) Umesh Chandra Datta

2. Of the following which was authored by Kaliprasanna Sinha?

(a) Neel Darpan
(b) Hootum Pyanchar Naksha
(c) Sattar Batsar
(d) Grambarta Prakashika

Answer: (b) Hootum Pyanchar Naksha

Tick True/False

1. It was not before 1813 that English education was introduced in India under the government initiative

Answer: (a) True

2. The Evangelists were those who did not favour the introduction of English education in India.

Answer: (b) False

3. The Bethune College emerged as an important institution for the higher education of women in Bengal.

Answer: (a) True

Fill in the Gaps

1. Foundation of universities was laid by _____ Dispatch of 1854 (Curzon’s/Hare’s/Wood’s/Macaulay’s)

Answer: Wood’s

2. The Brahmo Samaj founded by ____________ became the centre of the reformist movement in Bengal. (Keshab Chandra Sen/Debendranath Tagore/Iswarchandra Vidyasagar/Rammohan Roy)

Answer: Rammohan Roy

3. In 1855 ____________ published a pamphlet on the issue of remarriage of Hindu widows. (Rammohan/Vidyasagar/Derozio/Srischandra Vidyalankar)

Answer: Vidyasagar

Assertion and Reason

1. Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar

(a) Struggled in favour of remarriage of Hindu widow.
(b) Opposed child-marriage and polygamy.
(c) Campaigned in favour of education of women.
(d) Became the principal of the Sanskrit College in Kolkata and admitted non-Brahmin students into it.

Select the answer from the codes given below:

(i) a, b and c
(ii) b, c and d
(iii) a, c and d
(iv) All of these

Answer: (iv) All of these.

2. Which of the following statements are true about the Brahmo Movement of Bengal?

(a) After the death of Rammohan Roy the cause of the Brahmo Movement was taken up by Debendranath Tagore.
(b) Rammohan was not the founder of the Brahmo Samaj
(c) Sadharan Brahmo Samaj was founded in 1878
(d) Nababidhan was founded by Keshab Chandra Sen.

Select the answer from the codes given below:

(i) a, b and c
(ii) a, b and d
(iii) a, c and d
(iv) All of these

Answer: (iii) a, c and d.

Short Answer Type Questions

1. What was the outlook of the newspaper Hindoo Patriot?

Answer: The Hindoo Patriot was a newspaper with a national outlook.

2. How did the middle class Bengalee react to the Indigo Rebellion?

Answer: It was largely due to the efforts of Dinabandhu Mitra’s Neel Darpan that the Bengalee middle class for the first time came out in open support to the indigo rebels.

3. How did Lord Hardinge boost the English education?

Answer: In 1844, Lord Hardinge gave further stimulus to English education by linking up knowledge of English with government employment. He declared that English-knowing Indians would be given preference in government employment. This made English education more popular.

4. Who was the first Bengalee to dissect a dead body?

Answer: In the annals of medical education in India, the name of Pandit Madhusudan Gupta stands out as the person who first dissected a corpse at Calcutta Medical College. On 10 January 1836, Madhusudan Gupta dissected a dead body.

Analytical Answer Type Questions

1. What reflections of the contemporary Bengali society are found in the Bamabodhini?

Answer: The Bamabodhini, a Bengali periodical published from 1863 by Umesh Chandra Datta, reflected contemporary Bengali society primarily through its strong emphasis on women’s issues. It intended to focus on the needs of the womenfolk and addressed itself to promote necessary knowledge in different subjects amongst women. Bamabodhini helped bring about women’s progress in education and social matters. Articles and poems published in it, along with essays, dealt with the notion of the ideal woman in Bengalee society, the definition and character of ‘new Bengali women’, the significance of women’s schools, the virtues of good motherhood, and the institution of marriage. Most importantly, the Bamabodhini emphatically raised the position of the widows in society and vouched for Hindu widow remarriage.

2. Write in short about the Anglicist-Orientalist controversy.

Answer: The Anglicist-Orientalist controversy arose in the official circles of the East India Company’s government regarding the type of education to be introduced in India, following the Charter Act of 1813 which set aside funds for learning. Initially, British officials were not interested in changing the prevalent system. However, a controversy developed between two groups. The Anglicist (western) view favoured the introduction of Western scientific knowledge in India, while the Orientalist (oriental) view was in favour of promoting and disseminating traditional Indian learning. Key figures in the Anglicist party included W.W. Bird, Saunders, C.E. Trevelyan, and Calvin, while Orientalists included H. T. Princep, Elliot, Macnaghten, and Sutherland. This controversy continued for some time until it was ultimately set at rest in 1835 by Lord William Bentinck, influenced by Lord Macaulay’s recommendation. The decision was made to devote funds to promote European literature and sciences using English as the medium of instruction alone.

3. How did David Hare help the spread of English education?

Answer: David Hare played a significant role in spreading Western learning and sciences among the people of Bengal. He felt that free-thinking, secularism, and idealism were to be encouraged. He was one of the founders of the Hindu College (presently Presidency University) established in 1817, a landmark in the growth of Western education. Furthermore, David Hare was instrumental in establishing the School Book Society, which took the initiative to print and publish textbooks in both English and Bengali. He also founded the School Society in 1818, which did much for women’s education, and was attached to the Ladies’ Society for Native Female Education.

4. Write about the initiative of Young Bengal in social reform?

Answer: The students of Derozio, collectively known as the Young Bengal or Derozians, played an important role in the social reform of contemporary India. Inspired by Western literature and the radical thinking of their teacher, Louis Henry Vivian Derozio, they spoke loudly about the evil effects of idolatry and superstition. Some members even renounced the sacred thread (paita) and challenged traditional religious practices. The Young Bengal group also took up the issue of widow remarriage. Their paper, Jnananveshan, appreciated efforts to promote the remarriage of Hindu widows, and another Derozian paper, the Bengal Spectator, expressed hope for the removal of prejudices against it. Although the movement initiated by the Young Bengal was short-lived and lost momentum by 1840, it fostered a spirit of free thinking and enquiry.

Explanatory Answer Type Questions

1. What picture of the city life of Calcutta is obtained from the Hootum Pyanchar Naksha ?

Answer: Hootum Pyanchar Naksha provides satirical sketches of the city life of Kolkata mixed with an underlying humour. It looked at the changes that had been taking place and noticed and expressed with irony and humour how the old and the new lived side by side.

A description of a Kolkata city street illustrates this: “When the rain stopped, everyone emerged from the woodworks — the pedestrians, hawkers, fishwives and their men, outcaste Brahmins went around singing and begging for alms carrying the image of the goddess Sitala on a tray, Vaishnava mendicants wondered about singing playing their ektaras and tambourines, migrant Brahmins went around begging for alms crying, there were opium addicts, sweepers in their grog shops buying rum after work was over, drummers, cremators, pig-rearers, palki-bearers too emerged.” Hootum Pyanchar Naksha was an attempt to understand the chaos and the change all around, containing references to contemporary events, such as ridiculing the Europeans in Kolkata for their fear of the Revolt of 1857 and for exaggerating atrocities committed by the rebels.

2. How did Swami Vivekananda explain the Neo Vedanta ?

Answer: Neo-Vedanta, also called Neo-Hinduism, are terms which characterize the interpretation of Hinduism that developed during the nineteenth century. Neo-Vedanta is a re-establishment and re-construction of Vedanta of Sankara with modern arguments suited to modern man. Neo-Vedantism is a re-establishment and re-statement, reconstruction and revaluation, reorientation and reinterpretation of the Advaita Vedanta of Sankara with modern language, suited to a modern man, adjusting with all the challenges of modern life.

The practical applications of Neo-Vedanta are to be found in the life and teaching of Sri Ramakrishna. It was left to Swami Vivekananda to develop them into the philosophy of Neo-Vedanta and lay the foundation of practical Vedanta. Vedanta was an expression of Hindu spiritual supremacy which, to Vivekananda, was the one universal religion. He linked this concept to a two-fold division of the world between East and West.

3. Write about the rich Bengal Print media and literature during the 19th Century. Name some periodicals of that time, particularly about Bambodhini. Bamabodhini raised the position of women in society – Write a few hints about it. What did ‘Hindu Patriot’ do ?

Answer: The rich cultural heritage of Bengal found expression in print media as also in literature during the nineteenth century. Even before the introduction of Western education Bengal was endowed with men of letters and thinkers who were critical of the then British rule, while also seeing the weaknesses and pitfalls of Bengali society. The print media (journals, newspapers, periodicals, etc.) contributed significantly in social and other fields, including promoting nationalism. Newspapers are a primary source of history, reflecting their period and providing glimpses into society, helpful for contemporary social, political, and economic history. Among the papers and periodicals publishing articles on social reforms and problems, mention may be made of Jnandarshan, Bamabodhini, and Hindoo Patriot.

Bamabodhini was a Bengali periodical published in 1863 by Umesh Chandra Datta, with strong emphasis given to women’s issues. Sri Datta wrote that the paper intended to focus on the needs of the womenfolk and promote necessary knowledge in different subjects amongst women. Published until 1923, Bamabodhini helped bring about women’s progress in education and social matters. It published articles and poems by writers, essays on the ideal woman in Bengalee society, and discussed the definition and character of ‘new Bengali women’, the significance of women’s schools, the virtues of good motherhood, and the institution of marriage. Most importantly, the Bamabodhini emphatically raised the position of the widows in society and vouched for Hindu widow remarriage.

Hindoo Patriot was an English weekly published from Kolkata, initially by Madhusudan Roy under the editorship of Girish Chandra Ghosh in 1853. Under Harish Chandra Mukherjee’s editorship, it became the leading news weekly of Bengal. The Hindoo Patriot addressed contemporary social problems, opining, for example, that the Hindu marriage law imposed disability on girls exercising their right to marry on their own initiative, and remarked that abolishing early marriage would destroy the system. It was a newspaper with a national outlook, publishing articles during the Revolt of 1857. It also became a mouthpiece of protest against the injustices done to peasants by indigo planters, publishing stories vividly narrating their oppression. Later, under Krishnadas’s editorship after Harish Chandra’s death, the paper raised its voice against the British Government’s actions in muzzling the press.

4. Write about ‘Hootam Pyanchar Naksha’ by Kaliprasanna Singha. What speciality did it have ? Give an idea of what did it cater to the people of that time. What else did Kaliprasanna do?

Answer: Hootum Pyanchar Naksha (literally Sketches by a Watching Owl), authored by Kaliprasanna Sinha, was first published in 1862 and occupies a special place in Bengali literature.

Its speciality was addressing the strain within nineteenth-century Bengalee society caused by factors like conversion to Christianity, the emergence of Brahmoism, sea-voyage (not permitted by orthodox view), and social reform programmes. All this turmoil found expression in its pages. Hootum (Kaliprasanna Sinha) was a keen observer who looked at the changes taking place, noticing and expressing with irony and humour how the old and the new lived side by side, as shown in a description of a Kolkata city street. The book was an attempt to understand the chaos and the change all around.

It catered to understanding contemporary events, referencing, for example, the Revolt of 1857 which occurred a few years prior. The success of Kaliprasanna’s sketches was immediate, and it targeted influential men through satire, leading to a host of imitators springing up.

Besides writing the Naksha, Kaliprasanna ridiculed the Europeans in Kolkata for their fear of the Revolt and for exaggerating atrocities committed by the rebels.

5. Write about the impact of Dinabandhu Mitra’s ‘Neel Darpan’. Write about the torture perpetrated by the Indigo Planters upon the people. Write about Kangal Harnith Majumder.

Answer: Neel Darpan (literally meaning An Indigo Mirror), a Bengali play authored by Dinabandhu Mitra against the background of the Indigo Revolt (1859-1860), had a significant impact. The play exposed the grim picture of inhuman villainy and torture perpetrated by the indigo planters, most of whom were Europeans. In the days when the British in India were at the height of their power, it was daring and bold for Dinabandhu Mitra to raise a voice of protest against them. The Neel Darpan impacted the intellectual circles of Bengal. Largely due to its efforts, the Bengalee middle class for the first time came out in open support of the indigo rebels. While its main theme was the plight of the indigo cultivators, the play also highlighted the oppressive machinery of the colonial rulers that suppressed native resistance at local levels.

Regarding the torture perpetrated by the Indigo Planters, the play Neel Darpan exposed the grim picture of inhuman villainy and torture. The indigo planters did what they liked to the peasantry. Indigo cultivators in places like Jessore (Dinabandhu’s native place) were worst affected because of the oppressions of the indigo planters. Dinabandhu had first-hand knowledge of how the peasantry was treated.

Kangal Harinath Majumdar was the editor of the Grambarta Prakashika, a popular journal of nineteenth-century Bengal, first published in 1863. The main theme of the journal was to expose to the public the miserable condition of villages and the distress of the villagers under British colonial rule. It also published articles on literature, philosophy, science, etc., written by reputed Bengalee scholars, including essays and poems by Rabindranath Tagore. The publication shifted from Calcutta to Kusthia in 1864. Harinath’s greatest contribution through the journal was leading a relentless struggle to promote education in Bengal. The Grambarta Prakashika also addressed contemporary political matters and sought to create public opinion against the political and social wrongs done by the British colonial government.

6. In the 19th Century Bengal, there was a conflict between Oriental and Western Education. Write briefly about the conflict. Who were evangelists ? Describe their activities. Mention about Education Minutes by Macauley.

Answer: In 19th Century Bengal, a conflict arose regarding the type of education to be introduced in India. Initially, British officials in India were not interested in changing the prevalent system. The Charter Act of 1813 provided funds (one lac rupees annually) for the promotion of learning, but the East India Company’s government could not spend the money due to a controversy in official circles. The conflict was between the Anglicist (western) view, which favoured the introduction of Western scientific knowledge, and the Orientalist (oriental) view, which favoured promoting and disseminating traditional Indian learning. This Anglicist-Orientalist controversy continued for quite some time.

Evangelists were those in England who constantly put pressure upon the British government in London for the spread of education in India. The chief exponent of Evangelism was Charles Grant. However, even the Evangelists could not initially mould the minds of the British officials in India, who remained undecided on the type of education.

The controversy was ultimately set at rest in 1835 by the initiative of Lord William Bentinck, the Governor-General. Lord Macaulay, the Law Member in the Governor-General’s Council, was also in favour of introducing Western education. In his Minute (Macaulay’s Minute) of 1835, Macaulay recommended the introduction of English education in India through the medium of English. On the strength of Macaulay’s opinion, Lord Bentinck finalized the education policy. A Resolution declared that the British government would devote the stipulated funds to promote European literature and sciences among the natives of India, with the English language alone as the medium of instruction. Following this, the General Committee of Public Instruction proceeded with full vigour to spread English education.

7. Describe Iswar Chandra’s contribution towards women education. Describe Indian initiatives for the spread of Western education. What was Raja Rammohan Roy’s contribution towards education. How did he come to be known as the ‘First Modern Man of India ?’ Write about Raja Radha Kanta Dev in this connection.

Answer: Iswarchandra Vidyasagar worked for the education of women. He realised that there could not be emancipation of women, if they remained uneducated. He helped J. E. Drinkwater Bethune in the establishment of the Hindu Female School (Hindu Balika Vidyalaya) in 1849. The School was subsequently known as the Bethune Female School. Vidyasagar remained the Honorary Secretary of the School till 1869. Many female schools were also opened by him in the districts and some of them were run at his own expense. Throughout his whole life he had taken keen interest for promoting the cause of women education in our country. For promoting Bengali education Vidyasagar established a number of Bengali schools. Besides, he wrote and published his pioneering work Barnaparichay for beginners in 1855.

The introduction of Western education was undoubtedly one of the main factors that caused the Indian awakening. Raja Rammohan Roy was the first Indian to feel the need for that education. Besides being an indirect supporter of the Hindu College, Rammohan was the founder of the Anglo-Hindu School in 1822. In the said School Western science, philosophy and literature were taught. Protesting against an official proposal to set up a Sanskrit College in Calcutta Rammohan had sent a memorial in 1823 to Lord Amherst, the then Governor-General of India. In the memorial Rammohan strongly advocated for the introduction of Western education in India. Another important contribution of Rammohan in the field of education was to draw the Christian Missions to this field. He requested the Church of Scotland Assembly to send out competent teachers for the spread of English education in India. He also welcomed Dr. Alexander Duff, the famous missionary educationist. Raja Radhakanta Deb was a promoter of English education and science. He had a big hand in framing the rules and regulations of the Hindu College. Radhakanta always insisted that study and morals of the students should be the primary concern of the teachers. Aware of the importance of the study of science Radhakanta contributed liberally to the fund raiser for sending Indian youths to England for higher studies in medicine and surgery. David Hare realized the need of Western learning and sciences among the people. He also felt that free-thinking, secularism and idealism were to be encouraged. Foundation of the Hindu College (presently Presidency University) in 1817 was a landmark in the history of the growth of Western education. David Hare was one of the founders of the Hindu College. In the same year (1817) he was instrumental in establishing the School Book Society. The Society took initiative to print and publish text books both in English and Bengali. David Hare also attached to the Ladies’ Society for Native Female Education. In 1818 David Hare founded the School Society. The Society did much for women’s education. Iswarchandra Vidyasagar also worked for the education of women, helping establish the Hindu Female School in 1849 and opening many other female schools.

Raja Rammohan Roy was the first Indian to feel the need for Western education, and as such came to be known as the ‘First Modern Man of India’.

Raja Radhakanta Deb was the leader of the conservatives of the contemporary Bengal who defended everything that passed as Hinduism. Yet Radhakanta was a promoter of English education and science. He had a big hand in framing the rules and regulations of the Hindu College. Radhakanta always insisted that study and morals of the students should be the primary concern of the teachers. Thus when it appeared that the teaching of Derozio exercised a subversive influence on the Hindu way of life he was dismissed under pressure from Radhakanta and his associates. At the same time one must remember that Radhakanta had deep respect for Tom Paine’s Age of Reason, which was the Bible of the Derozians. Aware of the importance of the study of science Radhakanta contributed liberally to the fund raiser for sending Indian youths to England for higher studies in medicine and surgery.

8. Describe the initiatives of Bethune in the spread of education. Describe the beginning of Calcutta Medical College and Calcutta University for spread of higher education. Who was Madhusudan Gupta ? Write briefly about him.

Answer: It was John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune who devoted himself to the cause of female education in India. He came to realize that unless elite people could be encouraged to send their girls to schools female education could not flourish. A humble beginning in this direction was made by Bethune when with the help of people like Ramgopal Ghosh, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and others he set up Hindu Female School (Hindu Balika Vidyalaya) in Calcutta in 1849. Bethune donated all his movable and immovable property to the school. This was the first such effort in Calcutta (presently Kolkata) which had a major impact in the contemporary society of Bengal. Later on, in 1862-1863, the Hindu Female School was renamed as the Bethune School. Such was the role of Bethune spreading women’s education. Iswarchandra Vidyasagar also helped J. E. Drinkwater Bethune in the establishment of the Hindu Female School (Hindu Balika Vidyalaya) in 1849.

In 1835 Calcutta Medical College was established to impart to the Indian students Western medical science. Calcutta Medical College of Bengal founded in 1835 was the first institution in India imparting systematic education in Western medicine. The first Principal of the Calcutta Medical College was Dr. M. J. Bramley (1835-1837). The College that was established by an order of 28 January 1835 ushered in a new era in the history of medical education in India. The stated objective was to train native youths aged between 14 and 20 in the principles and practices of medical science in accordance with the European model. This marked the end of official patronage of indigenous medical learning.

Foundation of universities in India was laid by Wood’s Dispatch of 1854. This was prepared by Sir Charles Wood, the then Secretary of State for India, and hence called Wood’s Dispatch. The Dispatch recommended the establishment of a university in each Presidency town (Calcutta, Bombay and Madras) on the model of the University of London. A University Committee was appointed for working out details of a scheme in accordance with the recommendation of the Dispatch. The University Committee submitted its report in 1856. A draft Bill for the University of Calcutta being approved by the Governor-General-in-Council the University Act was passed in 1857. Governor-General Lord Canning became the first Chancellor, and Sir James William Colvile its first Vice-Chancellor. Foundation of the University of Calcutta was followed by the introduction of Western education in a big way. This was one of the main factors that causes Indian awakening. A rapid increase in the number of students helped the cause of higher education.

In the annals of medical education in India the name of Pandit Madhusudan Gupta stands out as the person who first dissected a corpse at Calcutta Medical College. The Hindus were under taboo concerning the pollution in touching human corpses. Dwarkanath Tagore, in cooperation with others including Professor Henry Harry Goodeve inspired Madhusudan Gupta to overcome prejudices and fear of social obloquy (disgrace) and dissect dead bodies in the college. It was on 10 January 1836 that Madhusudan Gupta dissected a dead body. Madhusudan Gupta was a many-sided person of achievements. He had mastery over ancient Sanskrit texts on medicine. He also translated English textbooks on anatomy into Sanskrit, and devised his own terminologies in Sanskrit. Madhusudan was also concerned about the sanitary condition of the then city of Kolkata and suggested many a means as regards the hygiene of the city-dwellers. He taught for twenty-two years at the Calcutta Medical College, and died on 15 November 1856.

9. Write about the activities of Brahmo Samaj, particularly Debendranath Tagore, Kesheb Chandra Sen, Bijoy Krishna Goswami and others of Brahmo faith.

Answer: The Brahmo Samaj founded by Rammohan Roy became the centre of reformist movement in Bengal. Rammohan considered caste-system of the Hindu society as the greatest obstacle to the development of patriotic feeling amongst them. His Brahmo Samaj was meant to be a cradle for the evolution of a casteless society. Rammohan sincerely believed that improvement of society was not possible without the regeneration of the womenfolk. His anti-Sati movement constituted an important landmark in the history of reform movement of India. The object of the Samaj was promotion among different religious groups a faith in the unity of the divine and of man, as also inculcation of the spirit of tolerance.

After the death of Rammohan the cause of the Brahmo movement for social reform was taken up by Debendranath Tagore. He became the President of the Friends’ Social Welfare Society. The Society aimed at promoting female education, abolition of child-marriage and polygamy. It also carried on an agitation in favour of widow remarriage. Debendranath Tagore infused a new life into the Brahmo movement. In fact, the credit of transforming the Brahmo Samaj into a distinctive religion belongs to him. Compilation of the tenets of Brahmoism in two volumes by him gave a new dimension to Brahmoism as a new religion. Debendranath also sought to strengthen unity of the members of the Samaj by introducing certain rituals performance of which was obligatory. It was owing to the leadership of Debendranath that the Indians could withstand the onslaught of Westernization let loose by the British colonialism. Debendranath though not opposed to social reforms did not approve any programme of social reforms to be linked up with the propagation of Brahmo faith. As a consequence of the difference Keshab Chandra parted away and formed a new organization called the Brahmo Samaj of India in 1865. The organization of Debendranath henceforth came to be known as the Adi Brahmo Samaj.

Attracted by the personality of Debendranath Tagore Keshab Chandra Sen joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1857. Very soon Keshab Chandra became one of its stalwarts and dedicated himself to the promotion of social reform in the country. Drawn by the magnetic power of Keshab’s oration hundreds of young men subscribed to the Brahmo faith. Along with his missionary activities Keshab Chandra included a programme of social reform in the Brahmo movement. Another great achievement of Keshab Chandra was to organize welfare measures for the people in distress. For instance, he organized a volunteer party called Sangat Sabha in 1860 for famine relief. Keshab Chandra sincerely believed that no substantial progress in society would be possible without the emancipation of women. He was strongly in favour of widow remarriage. In order to generate public opinion in favour of the Hindu widow remarriage, a movement initiated by Vidyasagar, Keshab Chandra actively helped in staging the Bidhava-Bibaha-Natak (in 1859). Keshab Chandra also roundly condemned polygamy and child-marriage. In a speech delivered he advocated that a ‘solid education’ should be given to women if their miseries were to be alleviated. He was thoroughly convinced that education alone that could help women playing a prominent role in life and society. Keshab Chandra did not like the idea of keeping the Brahmo movement within the confines of religious reforms. Rather reforms of the social evils were of greater importance to Keshab Chandra. He parted away from Debendranath and formed a new organization called the Brahmo Samaj of India in 1865. Most of the followers of Keshab Chandra renounced his leadership and set up a separate Brahmo organization named Sadharan Brahmo Samaj in 1878. In 1881 Keshab Chandra formed yet another new religious faith under the name Nababidhan.

Bijoy Krishna Goswami entered the Brahmo movement around 1860. He accepted the leadership of Keshab Chandra Sen and soon became a successful Brahmo missionary. Due to some difference of opinion with Debendranath Tagore Bijoy Krishna followed Keshab Chandra into the newly founded Brahmo Samaj of India. Still later Bijoy Krishna, though did not leave Brahmoism, abandoned Keshab Chandra Sen and joined the newly founded Sadharan Brahmo Samaj. The Sadharan Brahmo Samaj organization was founded under the initiative of Bijay Krishna Goswamee and Shib Nath Shastri. At a point of time Bijoy Krishna being disillusioned with the Brahmo movement felt attracted to Vaishnavism as taught by Sri Krishna Chaitanya. By 1889 he completely broke with the Brahmism and began his career as a spokesman of Vaishnavism.

The Brahmo movement played an important role in the regeneration of India. Originating in Bengal the movement spread far and wide in India. The Brahmo movement was not exclusively a religious movement, it brought within its fold the programme of social services. Another feature of the Brahmo movement was that the movement also concerned itself with the welfare of the common people as well as of labourers. In conclusion it may be said that the Brahmo movement upheld the human rights. Besides, the humanistic approach of the Brahmo movement helped to awaken the spirit of nationalism amongst the people of the country.

10. Write about the anti-Sati Movement. Ultimately Lord Bentink stopped the ‘Satidaha’ totally- describe how.

Answer: It was not until nineteenth century that an organized attempt was made against the barbarous practice of burning Hindu widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands. The practice was known as Satidaha (burning of a Sati or widow). It is known from the official records that as many as 8000 such burnings took place between 1815 and 1828.

Much before the East India Company’s government in India took any effective measure to prohibit the Sati the Christian missionaries like the Danes of Serampore, the Dutch at Chinsura and the French at Chandernagore had prohibited the practice in the areas under their jurisdiction. Serampore missionaries under the leadership of William Carey personally made a study of the Hindu scriptures on which the practice of burning Hindu widow was said to be based. Carey was convinced that the practice of Sati was not a compulsory practice applicable to all the Hindu widows. Carey also submitted a Memorial to the Governor-General Lord Wellesley urging him to prohibit the practice. Amongst the Hindu Sanskrit scholars the most important opinion was expressed by Mrityunjoy Vidyalankar. He categorically stated that the practice of Sati was absolutely voluntary and was by no means compulsory.

It was Raja Rammohan Roy who launched a strong movement against the practice of Sati. On the authority of the Hindu shastras Rammohan proved that there is no religious sanction for the evil practice of Sati. He organized a fiery campaign against the practice through signature campaign. He also sent a petition to the British Parliament. His anti-Sati movement on in the teeth of conservative section of people constituted an important landmark in the history of reform movement of India. Contemporary journals like Sambad Kaumadi, Samachar Darpan and others with progressive ideas also took up the cause of the abolition of the practice of Sati. When the anti-Sati Movement was gathering momentum the orthodox section of Bengalee people did not sit quiet. Some newspapers also lent support to the orthodox view regarding the practice of Sati. Samachar Chandrika, for example, came out openly in support of the practice of Sati and favoured its continuance. Evidently, the Bengali public opinion came to be sharply divided into two opposing groups. The Christian missionaries, however, were very much opposed to the evil practice. They supported the opinion that favoured its abolition. Not only that, they also tried to mobilize the public opinion in England against the practice.

In 1823 the Court of Directors in London asked the Company’s government in India to consider the question of abolition of the practice of Sati. But Lord Amherst, the then Governor-Generall of India decided not to take any measure in this regard. Reluctance on the part of Lord Amherst was due to apprehension of a possible reaction in the native army if an abolition was enforced.

Lord William Bentinck was a ‘reformer by temperament’. He had made up his mind about the question of Sati before he had arrived in India as the Governor-General (1828). Armed with support from the Court of Directors, public opinion in England, opinion of a large number of judges and high officials in India Bentinck finally decided to abolish the practice once for all. Rammohan Roy, however, was not in favour of abolishing the practice in one go. Rather he advocated imposing checks on it and use of police. This caused misgivings because Rammohan was the leader of the agitation for the abolition of the practice and in the same breadth he opposed its immediate abolition. It is highly probable, as pointed out by Professor Bose that Rammohan opposed immediate abolition on the ground that it would violate the British government’s professed policy of religious neutrality. Lord Bentinck, the first Governor-General of India, however, went ahead with his plan and the practice of Sati was declared ‘illegal and punishable by the criminal courts’ by the Regulation XVII in 1829.

11. Write about Louis Henry Vivian Derozio and Young Bengal. What did he do? Write about widow remarriage movement. How far did it succeed? Write about Haji Mohammad Mohsin.

Answer: Louis Henry Vivian Derozio played a very important role in carrying on the modernizing movement in Bengal. He joined the Hindu College in 1826 at the age of 17 and served for three years before his premature death at 23. Even during this short period, Derozio moulded the minds of a number of brilliant students. To his students, he constantly encouraged thinking freely and questioning all authority. Under his influence, the Hindu College students drew their inspiration from Bacon, Hume and Tom Paine. Derozio promoted advanced ideas through his class lectures and by organizing student societies, such as the Academic Association established in 1828 and the Society for the Acquisition of General Knowledge started in 1838. Such societies organized debates and discussions on literature, history, philosophy and science. Through these activities, Derozio charmed his students and fostered an intellectual revolution in them.

Derozio had tremendous influence on his students, teaching them about the evil effects of idolatry and superstition. Under his radical influence, many students renounced the sacred thread (paita), gave up daily prayers, or recited passages from the Iliad instead of shastric mantras. Some shouted at Brahmin priests saying “We take beef.” In spite of his Indo-European lineage, Derozio looked upon India as his motherland, composed poems like ‘The Fakir of Jhungeera’ full of high patriotic feeling, and inculcated a deep love for the motherland among his students. He urged students to live and die for truth. The students of Derozio, collectively known as the Young Bengal or Derozians, intensely studied Western literature and played an important role in the social reform of contemporary India, speaking loudly about the evil effects of idolatry and superstition. The impetus to free thinking and the spirit of enquiry roused by Derozio led to the foundation of a number of debating clubs in Calcutta. However, the movement initiated by the Young Bengal was short-lived and lost its momentum by 1840.

Serious attempts were made by the enlightened middle class to introduce Hindu widow remarriage in the nineteenth century. A woman who has lost her husband by death and has not remarried is called a widow; in India, widows were considered a marginalized group, occupied a lower status, often had to stay away from families, and took shelter in charitable houses or ashramas. They were perceived as ‘inauspicious dependents on society’. Remarriage of widows amongst the Hindus was not common and was considered a taboo. Rammohan Roy was the earliest champion of women’s rights and sympathetic to the cause of widows but could not do anything concrete in legalizing their remarriage due to opposition from conservatives like Maharaja Krishnachandra of Nadia. From the thirties of the nineteenth century, the question gathered momentum, especially after Sati was declared illegal. Newspapers and journals published articles in support, and Christian missionaries took up the cause. The Samachar Darpan drew attention to the sufferings of Bengali widows. The Young Bengal also took up the issue in its paper Jnananveshan, appreciating the efforts of Motilal Seal and Haladhar Mallik. Another Derozian paper, the Bengal Spectator, expressed hope that prejudices regarding remarriage would soon be removed.

It was Iswarchandra Vidyasagar who began a campaign during the mid-nineteenth century. He waged a long struggle, realizing the campaign needed backing from Shastric instructions. Studying sacred books, he found a verse in the Parasara Samhita stating that a second marriage is sanctioned for women under certain conditions, including the death of her husband. In 1855, Vidyasagar published a pamphlet strongly refuting arguments by the orthodox imposing disability on widows for remarriage, causing a stir. Petitions from Bengal, Madras, Bombay, Nagpur, and other cities, signed by distinguished persons like Devendranath Tagore, Prasannakumar Tagore, and Iswarchandra Vidyasagar, were sent to the Legislative Council requesting an Act legalizing the remarriage of Hindu widows. The orthodox section submitted counter-petitions.

Strengthened by the movement, the British government in India finally passed Act XV (Hindu Widow Remarriage Act) on 26 July 1856. The first widow remarriage took place on 7 December 1856 between Srischandra Vidyaratna and Kalimati Devi, who was a widow of only eleven years. Thus, the movement succeeded in getting the practice legalized.

Haji Mohammad Mohsin was born in 1732 in Hooghly, West Bengal. After completing his education, he toured various places abroad. Shortly after his return, he became a wealthy man as his half-sister, Monoojan, left large property to him upon her death. Mohsin was a religious man who did not take to luxury; charity became the motto of his life. Importantly, in his charitable efforts, he made no distinction between Hindu and Muslim. He made liberal contributions for the spread of education in Bengal, including a remarkable gift to the Hooghly College (presently Hooghly Mohsin College), and Madrassas in Dacca, Chittagong, and many other places in present Bangladesh.

12. Write about nineteenth Century Bengal religious reforms. Write about the Brahmo movement and its Characteristics.

Answer: In the nineteenth century, Bengal saw several religious movements born. The most important were the Brahmo Movement, the idea of religious harmony propounded by Ramakrishna, and the religious reform movement initiated by Vivekananda.

The Brahmo Movement was a product of the revolt against Brahmanical orthodoxy, not a result of English education or Western thought. Rammohan Roy, although a Brahmin by caste, renounced idolatry even before acquiring knowledge of English. He challenged prevalent Hindu practices, arguing that belief in many gods and image worship opposed Vedic teachings. To preach his views, Rammohan opened the Brahmo Sabha or Brahmo Samaj on 20 August 1828. There is also an opinion that he founded a society called Atmiya Sabha in 1815, which transformed into the Brahmo Samaj. The Samaj aimed to promote faith in the unity of the divine and of man among different religious groups, and inculcate tolerance. Rammohan considered the caste system the greatest obstacle to patriotic feeling and intended the Brahmo Samaj to be a cradle for a casteless society. He believed societal improvement required the regeneration of womenfolk, and his anti-Sati movement was a landmark.

After Rammohan’s death, Debendranath Tagore took up the cause. He infused new life into the movement, transforming the Brahmo Samaj into a distinctive religion. His compilation of Brahmoism tenets gave it a new dimension. Debendranath introduced rituals to strengthen unity. Under his leadership, Indians could withstand the onslaught of Westernization.

The next phase began in 1857 when Keshab Chandra Sen joined the Brahmo Samaj, attracted by Debendranath Tagore’s personality. Keshab became a stalwart, dedicating himself to social reform. His orations drew hundreds of young men to the Brahmo faith. He included social reform programmes in the Brahmo movement and organized welfare measures, like the Sangat Sabha volunteer party for famine relief in 1860. Keshab sincerely believed that no substantial progress was possible without the emancipation of women. He strongly favoured widow remarriage and advocated ‘solid education’ for women. He also condemned polygamy and child marriage.

Differences arose between Debendranath and Keshab regarding the Samaj’s attitude towards social problems. Keshab prioritized social reforms over confining the movement to religious reforms. This led to a split, and Keshab formed the Brahmo Samaj of India in 1865. Debendranath’s organization became known as the Adi Brahmo Samaj. Debendranath, though not opposed to social reforms, did not approve linking them with Brahmo faith propagation.

Bijoy Krishna Goswami entered the movement around 1860, becoming a successful missionary under Keshab Chandra Sen. Due to differences with Debendranath Tagore, Bijoy Krishna followed Keshab into the Brahmo Samaj of India. Later, disillusioned with Keshab’s concept of ‘avatarism’ and the Brahmo movement, Bijoy Krishna abandoned Keshab Chandra Sen (though not Brahmoism initially) and joined the newly founded Sadharan Brahmo Samaj in 1878. This further division occurred when most of Keshab’s followers renounced his leadership and set up the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj under the initiative of Bijoy Krishna Goswami and Shib Nath Shastri. Feeling attracted to Vaishnavism as taught by Sri Krishna Chaitanya, Bijoy Krishna completely broke with Brahmoism by 1889 and became a spokesman for Vaishnavism.

In 1881, Keshab Chandra formed yet another new religious faith named Nababidhan.

Characteristics of the Brahmo Movement:

It originated as a revolt against Brahmanical orthodoxy and idolatry.
It initially sought to reform Hinduism based on the Vedas, promoting monotheism.
It evolved into a distinctive religion with its own tenets and rituals under Debendranath Tagore.
It strongly advocated social reforms, including the abolition of the caste system, anti-Sati agitation, promotion of female education, and widow remarriage.
It emphasized the regeneration and emancipation of women.
It included programmes of social service and welfare, like famine relief.
It concerned itself with the welfare of common people and labourers.
It upheld human rights and helped awaken nationalism.
The movement experienced divisions based on differing views on social reform and leadership (Adi Brahmo Samaj, Brahmo Samaj of India, Sadharan Brahmo Samaj).

The Brahmo movement played an important role in the regeneration of India, spreading from Bengal across the country.

13. Write about Ramakrishna Paramhansa Dev’s idea of ‘Sarva-Dharma Samannaya’. How far did Swami Vivekananda initiate ‘Navya Vedanta’. Describe Vivekananda’s vision of Hinduism. Who was Lalon Fakir. Write what you know about him.

Answer: Ramakrishna Paramhansa Deva of the Dakshineswar temple is considered a spiritual miracle. Though lacking formal education, his spiritual realizations were profound. Ramakrishna recognized differences among religions but was convinced that all religions lead to the same goal, concluding they are all valid and true. Regarding religious harmony or ‘Sarva Dharma Samannaya’, Ramakrishna stated he had practiced all religions—Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity—as well as different paths within Hindu sects. Through this, he found it was the same God towards whom all were directing their steps. He observed people quarrelling in the name of religion without realizing that He who is called Krishna is also Siva, and bears the name of Jesus and Allah. According to him, it is the same Rama with a thousand names. Thus, Ramakrishna’s message of religious harmony, or Sarva Dharma Samannaya, is first the recognition of differences among religions, and at the same time, the understanding that these differences are to be overcome and harmony established.

Swami Vivekananda developed the philosophy of Neo-Vedanta (Navya Vedanta) and laid the foundation of practical Vedanta. Neo-Vedanta, also called Neo-Hinduism, characterizes the interpretation of Hinduism developed during the nineteenth century. It is a re-establishment and reconstruction of Sankara’s Vedanta with modern arguments suited to modern man. Neo-Vedantism involves the re-statement, revaluation, reorientation, and reinterpretation of Advaita Vedanta using modern language, adjusting to modern life’s challenges. The practical applications of Neo-Vedanta are found in Sri Ramakrishna’s life and teachings, and it was left to Swami Vivekananda to develop these into the philosophy of Neo-Vedanta.

Vivekananda’s vision of Hinduism was divided into two parts: its glorious past and a degenerate present. He believed India’s past was golden, making her the teacher of the spiritual world. However, he saw the nineteenth-century Hindus as superstitious, performers of elaborate rituals, jealous of potential leaders, and lacking manliness, possessing ‘the malicious nature befitting a slave’. To neutralize this depressing state, Vivekananda offered new ideas. He spoke about the past glory, asserting that in the hoary past, Hindus acted as teachers to a world dependent on their spirituality. He presented Vedanta as an expression of Hindu spiritual supremacy and the one universal religion. He linked this concept to a two-fold division of the world: the spiritual East (India and Hinduism) and the materialistic West. While admitting the West had positive achievements like freedom, respect for women, emphasis on work, and material prosperity, he found it ‘gross, material, selfish and sensual’. He proposed a great ideal: the conquest of the world by India, possible through transferring Western technology integrated with Hindu culture, in return for which Hindus would transfer their spirituality to the West.

Lalon Fakir, variously called Lalon Sain or Lalon Shah, was a saint, lyricist, social reformer, and thinker. He believed in the power of music, and his songs inspired poets and social thinkers like Rabindranath Tagore. His songs rejected absolute standards of right and wrong. Greatly influenced by Sri Chaitanya’s social reform movement, Lalon, as a social reformer, rejected all distinctions of caste and creed. He is considered an icon of religious tolerance. His songs reflect an imaginary society where all religions and beliefs exist in harmony, rejecting attempts to divide people. Lalon composed numerous songs and poems describing his philosophy, appropriating various philosophical positions from Hindu, Jain, Buddhist, and Islamic traditions.

14. Write about the nature of Bengal Renaissance and make an assessment about it.

Answer: The intellectual awakening of Bengal in the nineteenth century is commonly known as the Bengal Renaissance. The term is derived from the Italian and European Renaissance of the fifteenth century, inevitably inviting comparison. Just as the Renaissance marked a new period in Europe, some scholars suggest the Bengal Renaissance heralded a new period in Bengal and India. The characteristic feature of the Bengal Renaissance was its tendency to lean heavily on the colonial British Raj.

However, an assessment reveals significant debate and criticism regarding its nature and comparison to the European Renaissance.
Opinions exist that there is no similarity at all between the two. The grounds for this view include:

The European Renaissance had a much wider scope, giving birth to many-sided resurgences like the Geographical Discoveries, Reformation, and Humanism, which the Bengal Renaissance lacked the capacity to generate.
The political frames were different. The European Renaissance began in an atmosphere of political freedom with independent states, whereas the intellectual Renaissance in Bengal occurred under colonial subjection.

Professor Amales Tripathi argued that equating the nineteenth-century Bengali cultural flowering with the European Renaissance was a fault, as it wasn’t possible to generate the same type in India. He dubbed the Bengal Renaissance as ‘ersatz’ (artificial or fake).

There’s a trend to see the ‘renaissance’ as a synthesis of liberalism and conservatism. However, Professor Susobhan Sarkar noted that a true synthesis fuses two opposites into a higher third entity, which couldn’t be found in the Bengal Renaissance. Thus, the conflict about the ‘renaissance’ persisted.

Admirers tried to find parallels with Russian intellectual history, but Professor Sumit Sarkar opined that the parallel ‘seems fruitful only in terms of the difference it reveals.’

Critics also point out that the educated community of Bengal, associated with the Renaissance, failed to understand the exploitative nature of British colonial rule. They were mainly interested in their immediate benefits. This perspective links the limitations of the Renaissance to phenomena like the Young Bengal movement, which, despite its initial radicalism, was short-lived and ultimately limited in its impact, possibly due to this narrow focus. If the colonial British rule was regressive, then critics argue the Bengal Renaissance, heavily leaning on it, was also bound to be retrogressive.

Extras

MCQs

1. Who published the Bengali periodical Bamabodhini in 1863?

A. Umesh Chandra Datta
B. Harish Chandra Mukherjee
C. Madhusudan Roy
D. Dinabandhu Mitra

Answer: A. Umesh Chandra Datta

2. Until which year was Bamabodhini published?

A. 1907
B. 1923
C. 1896
D. 1863

Answer: B. 1923

3. What was the main focus of Bamabodhini’s articles?

A. Nationalism
B. Women’s issues
C. Colonial policy
D. Economic reform

Answer: B. Women’s issues

4. Which issue, besides women’s education, was frequently discussed in Bamabodhini?

A. Definition of ‘new Bengali women’
B. Land reforms
C. Industrial advancement
D. Military strategies

Answer: A. Definition of ‘new Bengali women’

5. Which English weekly, first published in 1853, became noted for addressing contemporary social problems?

A. Hindoo Patriot
B. Jnandarshan
C. Bengal Spectator
D. Hindustan Review

Answer: A. Hindoo Patriot

6. Under whose editorship did Hindoo Patriot become the leading news weekly of Bengal?

A. Girish Chandra Ghosh
B. Harish Chandra Mukherjee
C. Kangal Harinath Majumdar
D. Umesh Chandra Datta

Answer: B. Harish Chandra Mukherjee

7. Who authored Hootum Pyanchar Naksha, famous for its satirical sketches of city life?

A. Dinabandhu Mitra
B. Kaliprasanna Sinha
C. Madhusudan Gupta
D. Keshab Chandra Sen

Answer: B. Kaliprasanna Sinha

8. In which year was Hootum Pyanchar Naksha first published?

A. 1862
B. 1857
C. 1863
D. 1860

Answer: A. 1862

9. Which literary style best characterises Hootum Pyanchar Naksha?

A. Epic poetry
B. Satirical sketches
C. Historical narrative
D. Dramatic dialogue

Answer: B. Satirical sketches

10. Which play, set against the backdrop of the Indigo Revolt, exposed the oppression of indigo cultivators?

A. Neel Darpan
B. Hootum Pyanchar Naksha
C. Grambarta Prakashika
D. Bamabodhini

Answer: A. Neel Darpan

11. Who authored the play Neel Darpan?

A. Raja Rammohan Roy
B. Dinabandhu Mitra
C. David Hare
D. Iswarchandra Vidyasagar

Answer: B. Dinabandhu Mitra

12. Grambarta Prakashika, a journal exposing rural distress and promoting education, was first printed in Calcutta in which year?

A. 1863
B. 1856
C. 1860
D. 1870

Answer: A. 1863

13. Who served as the editor of Grambarta Prakashika?

A. Kangal Harinath Majumdar
B. Madhusudan Gupta
C. Radhakanta Deb
D. Debendranath Tagore

Answer: A. Kangal Harinath Majumdar

14. To which location was Grambarta Prakashika shifted in 1864?

A. Bombay
B. Madras
C. Kusthia
D. Dhaka

Answer: C. Kusthia

15. In what year was English education officially introduced in India under a government initiative?

A. 1813
B. 1822
C. 1835
D. 1849

Answer: A. 1813

16. Which Act provided one lac rupees annually for promoting learning in India?

A. Charter Act
B. Wood’s Dispatch
C. University Act
D. Education Act

Answer: A. Charter Act

17. What is the name of the controversy that debated the promotion of Western science versus traditional Indian learning?

A. Evangelist–Orthodox debate
B. Anglicist–Orientalist controversy
C. East–West controversy
D. Modern–Traditional debate

Answer: B. Anglicist–Orientalist controversy

18. Who was the chief exponent of Evangelism advocating for the spread of English education?

A. Charles Grant
B. Lord Hardinge
C. William Carey
D. David Hare

Answer: A. Charles Grant

19. Whose Minute in 1835 recommended introducing education through the medium of English?

A. Lord Bentinck
B. Lord Macaulay
C. Lord Hardinge
D. Lord Amherst

Answer: B. Lord Macaulay

20. In which year did Lord Bentinck finalise the English education policy?

A. 1835
B. 1813
C. 1844
D. 1854

Answer: A. 1835

21. Which institution, established in 1835, was the first in India to impart systematic education in Western medicine?

A. Calcutta University
B. Hindu College
C. Calcutta Medical College
D. Presidency College

Answer: C. Calcutta Medical College

22. Which British official in 1844 linked proficiency in English with a preference in government employment?

A. Lord Bentinck
B. Lord Hardinge
C. Lord Macaulay
D. Lord Amherst

Answer: B. Lord Hardinge

23. Who played a key role in promoting women’s education by helping establish the Hindu Female School in 1849?

A. David Hare
B. Iswarchandra Vidyasagar
C. Raja Rammohan Roy
D. Keshab Chandra Sen

Answer: B. Iswarchandra Vidyasagar

24. What later name was given to the Hindu Female School established in 1849?

A. Bethune School
B. Hindu Balika Vidyalaya
C. Anglo-Hindu School
D. Calcutta Girls’ School

Answer: A. Bethune School

25. Who is recognised as the ‘First Modern Man of India’ for his initiatives in education?

A. Raja Rammohan Roy
B. Radhakanta Deb
C. Debendranath Tagore
D. David Hare

Answer: A. Raja Rammohan Roy

26. In which year did Raja Rammohan Roy send a memorial advocating for Western education?

A. 1813
B. 1822
C. 1823
D. 1835

Answer: C. 1823

27. Which conservative figure helped frame the rules of Hindu College while supporting English education?

A. David Hare
B. Radhakanta Deb
C. Iswarchandra Vidyasagar
D. Louis H. V. Derozio

Answer: B. Radhakanta Deb

28. What is the name of the group of three missionaries associated with early educational reforms in India?

A. The Serampore Trio
B. The Bengal Trio
C. The Missionary Trio
D. The Anglo-Hindu Group

Answer: A. The Serampore Trio

29. Who founded the Hindu College in 1817, marking a significant step in Western education in Bengal?

A. Raja Rammohan Roy
B. David Hare
C. Lord Macaulay
D. Iswarchandra Vidyasagar

Answer: B. David Hare

30. Which institution, established on Wood’s Dispatch of 1854, laid the foundation of higher education in India?

A. Calcutta University
B. Calcutta Medical College
C. Hindu College
D. University of Madras

Answer: A. Calcutta University

31. Who were the first two graduates of Calcutta University in 1858?

A. Joddu Nath Bose and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
B. Chandramukhi Bose and Kadambini Bose
C. Louis H. V. Derozio and Keshab Chandra Sen
D. Devendranath Tagore and Iswarchandra Vidyasagar

Answer: A. Joddu Nath Bose and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay

32. Who were the first two women graduates of Calcutta University in 1882?

A. Chandramukhi Bose and Kadambini Bose
B. Iswarchandra Vidyasagar and Devendranath Tagore
C. Ramgopal Ghosh and Haladhar Mallik
D. J. E. D. Bethune and Keshab Chandra Sen

Answer: A. Chandramukhi Bose and Kadambini Bose

33. Who was the first native to dissect a dead body at Calcutta Medical College?

A. Louis H. V. Derozio
B. Madhusudan Gupta
C. David Hare
D. Raja Rammohan Roy

Answer: B. Madhusudan Gupta

34. On which date did Madhusudan Gupta perform the first dissection at Calcutta Medical College?

A. 15 November 1856
B. 10 January 1836
C. 26 July 1856
D. 7 December 1856

Answer: B. 10 January 1836

35. When did Madhusudan Gupta pass away?

A. 15 November 1856
B. 10 January 1836
C. 7 December 1856
D. 26 July 1856

Answer: A. 15 November 1856

36. Which leader is credited with founding the reform movement against social evils through religious change in Bengal?

A. Raja Rammohan Roy
B. Debendranath Tagore
C. Keshab Chandra Sen
D. Louis H. V. Derozio

Answer: A. Raja Rammohan Roy

37. Who assumed the leadership of Brahmo Samaj following the demise of Raja Rammohan Roy?

A. Keshab Chandra Sen
B. Debendranath Tagore
C. Bijay Krishna Goswami
D. Radhakanta Deb

Answer: B. Debendranath Tagore

38. Which reformer joined Brahmo Samaj in 1857 and later actively promoted widow remarriage?

A. Iswarchandra Vidyasagar
B. Keshab Chandra Sen
C. Debendranath Tagore
D. Louis H. V. Derozio

Answer: B. Keshab Chandra Sen

39. Under which regulation was the practice of Sati declared illegal and punishable in 1829?

A. Regulation XV
B. Regulation XVII
C. Regulation XIX
D. Regulation XII

Answer: B. Regulation XVII

40. Which Governor-General abolished the Sati practice in 1829 by declaring it illegal?

A. Lord Amherst
B. Lord Bentinck
C. Lord Hardinge
D. Lord Macaulay

Answer: B. Lord Bentinck

41. Which teacher at Hindu College was known for fostering free thought but was compelled to resign due to his radical influence?

A. Louis H. V. Derozio
B. David Hare
C. Raja Rammohan Roy
D. Keshab Chandra Sen

Answer: A. Louis H. V. Derozio

42. What name was given to the group of Hindu College students influenced by Derozio’s radical ideas?

A. Old Bengal
B. New Bengal
C. Young Bengal
D. Bengal Reformers

Answer: C. Young Bengal

43. Around which year did the Young Bengal movement lose its momentum?

A. 1829
B. 1840
C. 1856
D. 1860

Answer: B. 1840

44. Who published a pamphlet on widow remarriage in 1855 that created widespread debate?

A. Raja Rammohan Roy
B. Iswarchandra Vidyasagar
C. Keshab Chandra Sen
D. Debendranath Tagore

Answer: B. Iswarchandra Vidyasagar

45. On what date did the first Hindu widow remarriage take place under the reform movement?

A. 26 July 1856
B. 10 January 1836
C. 7 December 1856
D. 15 November 1856

Answer: C. 7 December 1856

46. Which Act legalised the remarriage of Hindu widows in 1856?

A. Widow Remarriage Act
B. Hindu Widow Remarriage Act
C. Remarriage Regulation Act
D. Widow Protection Act

Answer: B. Hindu Widow Remarriage Act

47. In which year was Mohammad Mohsin, noted for his charitable contributions, born?

A. 1732
B. 1772
C. 1800
D. 1835

Answer: A. 1732

48. Mohammad Mohsin made a significant gift to which educational institution in Hooghly?

A. Bethune College
B. Hooghly Mohsin College
C. Hindu College
D. Calcutta Medical College

Answer: B. Hooghly Mohsin College

49. On what date was the Brahmo Sabha, later known as Brahmo Samaj, established?

A. 20 August 1828
B. 10 January 1836
C. 26 July 1856
D. 7 December 1856

Answer: A. 20 August 1828

50. Who transformed Brahmo Samaj into a distinct religious movement by compiling its tenets?

A. Raja Rammohan Roy
B. Debendranath Tagore
C. Keshab Chandra Sen
D. Bijay Krishna Goswami

Answer: B. Debendranath Tagore

51. Which leader left Brahmo Samaj to form the Brahmo Samaj of India in 1865?

A. Keshab Chandra Sen
B. Debendranath Tagore
C. Bijay Krishna Goswami
D. Radhakanta Deb

Answer: A. Keshab Chandra Sen

52. In which year was the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj founded?

A. 1865
B. 1878
C. 1857
D. 1881

Answer: B. 1878

53. Who were the founders of the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj?

A. Raja Rammohan Roy and Debendranath Tagore
B. Keshab Chandra Sen and Radhakanta Deb
C. Bijay Krishna Goswami and Shib Nath Shastri
D. Iswarchandra Vidyasagar and David Hare

Answer: C. Bijay Krishna Goswami and Shib Nath Shastri

54. Which new religious faith was established by Keshab Chandra Sen in 1881?

A. Brahmo Samaj of India
B. Sadharan Brahmo Samaj
C. Nababidhan
D. Neo-Vedanta

Answer: C. Nababidhan

55. What principle of religious harmony did Ramakrishna advocate?

A. Universalism
B. Sarva Dharma Samanwaya
C. Neo-Vedanta
D. Advaita

Answer: B. Sarva Dharma Samanwaya

56. According to Ramakrishna, which religions did he practise to understand their truths?

A. Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity
B. Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism
C. Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism
D. Christianity, Islam, and Judaism

Answer: A. Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity

57. Who popularised the philosophy of Neo-Vedanta in modern India?

A. Ramakrishna
B. Swami Vivekananda
C. Debendranath Tagore
D. Raja Rammohan Roy

Answer: B. Swami Vivekananda

58. Which social reformer and lyricist is celebrated as an icon of religious tolerance in Bengal?

A. Dinabandhu Mitra
B. Lalon Fakir
C. Keshab Chandra Sen
D. Debendranath Tagore

Answer: B. Lalon Fakir

59. What term describes the intellectual awakening of Bengal in the nineteenth century?

A. Bengal Revival
B. Bengal Renaissance
C. Bengal Enlightenment
D. Bengal Resurgence

Answer: B. Bengal Renaissance

60. The Bengal Renaissance is often compared with which European historical period?

A. Industrial Revolution
B. Age of Enlightenment
C. European Renaissance
D. Modern Era

Answer: C. European Renaissance

61. Which scholar argued that the Bengal Renaissance was artificial and not comparable to its European counterpart?

A. Professor Susobhan Sarkar
B. Professor Sumit Sarkar
C. Professor Amales Tripathi
D. Professor Nemai Sadhan Bose

Answer: C. Professor Amales Tripathi

62. The Bengal Renaissance was heavily influenced by which colonial power?

A. French
B. Portuguese
C. British
D. Dutch

Answer: C. British

63. Which movement of radical students is noted for having overlooked the exploitative nature of colonial rule?

A. Brahmo Movement
B. Young Bengal
C. Bengal Renaissance
D. Religious Reforms

Answer: B. Young Bengal

Questions and Answers

1. When was Bamabodhini first published?

Answer: Bamabodhini was a Bengali periodical published in 1863.

2. Who was the editor who made Hindoo Patriot popular?

Answer: It was under the editorship of Harish Chandra Mukherjee, the most promising correspondent and journalist of contemporary Bengal that Hindoo Patriot became the leading news weekly of Bengal.

3. Who wrote the Bengali play Neel Darpan?

Answer: Neel Darpan is a Bengali play authored by Dinabandhu Mitra.

4. When did English education officially begin in India under government initiative?

Answer: It was not before 1813 that English education was introduced in India under the government initiative.

5. What was the Charter Act of 1813?

Answer: The beginning of Western education in India is to be dated from the Charter Act of 1813. The Charter Act passed by the British Parliament provided, amongst other things, a sum of rupees one lac to be set aside a year for the promotion of learning in India.

6. Who advocated English education through his ‘Minute’ in 1835?

Answer: Lord Macaulay, the Law Member in the Governor-General’s Council, was in favour of introducing Western education in India. In his Minute (Macaulay’s Minute) of 1835, he recommended the introduction of English education in India through the medium of English.

7. Who was the founder of the Anglo-Hindu School?

Answer: Rammohan Roy was the founder of the Anglo-Hindu School in 1822.

8. Who founded the Brahmo Samaj?

Answer: Rammohan Roy founded the institution called Brahmo Sabha or Brahmo Samaj on 20 August 1828. There is also an opinion that Rammohan Roy founded a society in 1815 called Atmiya Sabha, which was transformed into Brahmo Samaj. The Brahmo Samaj founded by him became the centre of reformist movement in Bengal.

9. Which Governor-General abolished the practice of Sati?

Answer: Lord Bentinck, the first Governor-General of India, went ahead with his plan and the practice of Sati was declared ‘illegal and punishable by the criminal courts’ by the Regulation XVII in 1829.

10. Who first dissected a corpse at Calcutta Medical College?

Answer: In the annals of medical education in India, the name of Pandit Madhusudan Gupta stands out as the person who first dissected a corpse at Calcutta Medical College. It was on 10 January 1836 that Madhusudan Gupta dissected a dead body.

11. What was the objective of Bamabodhini?

Answer: The paper intended to focus the needs of the womenfolk. Further, the Bamabodhini would address itself to promote necessary knowledge in different subjects amongst women.

12. What were the primary social issues addressed by the Hindoo Patriot?

Answer: The Hindoo Patriot addressed contemporary social problems. For example, the Hindoo Patriot opined that the Hindu marriage law imposed disability on the part of the girls in exercising their right to marry on their own initiative and remarked that the abolition of early marriage would destroy the system. The paper also became a mouthpiece of protest against the injustices done to the peasants by the indigo planters, publishing stories narrating vividly how the indigo peasants were oppressed by the indigo planters.

13. What was the significance of the Charter Act of 1813 for education in India?

Answer: The year 1813 was a landmark in the history of education in India. The beginning of Western education in India is to be dated from the Charter Act of 1813. The Charter Act passed by the British Parliament provided, amongst other things, a sum of rupees one lac to be set aside a year for the promotion of learning in India.

14. Describe the Anglicist-Orientalist controversy.

Answer: Initially, the British officials in India were not interested in bringing about any change in the prevalent system of education. The year 1813 was a landmark in the history of education in India, with the Charter Act setting aside funds for learning. However, the East India Company’s government could not spend the money due to indifference largely caused by the controversy that reared its head in the official circle regarding the type of education to be introduced in India.

The officials remained undecided as to the type of education to be introduced. The opinion that favoured the introduction of Western scientific knowledge in India came to be known as the Anglicist (western) view, while the Orientalist (oriental) view was in favour of promoting and disseminating the traditional Indian learning. The Anglicist party included W.W. Bird, Saunders, C.E. Trevelyan, Calvin, et al. The Orientalists were H. T. Princep, Elliot, Macnaghten, Sutherland, etc. The Anglicist-Orientalist controversy continued for quite some time until it was set at rest in 1835 by the initiative of Lord William Bentinck, based on Lord Macaulay’s recommendation favouring the introduction of English education in India through the medium of English.

15. What was Lord Hardinge’s policy on English education?

Answer: In 1844 Lord Hardinge gave further stimulus to English education by linking up knowledge of English with government employment. He declared that English knowing Indians would be given preference in government employment. This made the English education more popular.

16. How did David Hare contribute to women’s education?

Answer: David Hare was attached to the Ladies’ Society for Native Female Education. In 1818 David Hare founded the School Society. The Society did much for women’s education.

17. Who was Kangal Harinath Majumdar, and what was his role in promoting education?

Answer: Kangal Harinath Majumdar was the editor of the Grambarta Prakashika, a popular journal of nineteenth-century Bengal. His greatest contribution is that through the Grambarta Prakashika, he led a relentless struggle to promote education in Bengal.

18. What was the immediate impact of Derozio’s teachings at Hindu College?

Answer: Derozio had a tremendous influence on his students at Hindu College. He taught them about the evil effects of idolatry and superstition. It is said that under the influence of the radical thinking of Derozio, many of his students renounced the sacred thread (paita). Some others gave up their daily prayers, and when forced to do so, they recited passages from the Iliad (of Homer) instead of shastric mantras. Some even went further, shouting at the Brahmin priests, saying “We take beef.” In order to check the growth of these ultra-radical tendencies in the Hindu College, the authorities decided to dismiss Derozio from the service.

19. Who was J. E. Drinkwater Bethune, and what was his contribution?

Answer: John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune was someone who devoted himself to the cause of female education in India. He realized that unless elite people could be encouraged to send their girls to schools, female education could not flourish. He helped J. E. Drinkwater Bethune in the establishment of the Hindu Female School (Hindu Balika Vidyalaya) in 1849. A humble beginning in this direction was made by Bethune when, with the help of people like Ramgopal Ghosh, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and others, he set up the Hindu Female School (Hindu Balika Vidyalaya) in Calcutta in 1849. Bethune donated all his movable and immovable property to the school. This was the first such effort in Calcutta which had a major impact in the contemporary society of Bengal. Later on, in 1862-1863, the Hindu Female School was renamed as the Bethune School. Such was the role of Bethune in spreading women’s education.

20. Who were the first women graduates from the University of Calcutta?

Answer: Chandramukhi Bose and Kadambini Bose (Ganguli) were the first two women graduates of the University of Calcutta in 1882.

21. Explain the role of periodicals in promoting social reforms in nineteenth-century Bengal.

Answer: In nineteenth-century Bengal, the print media, including journals, newspapers, and periodicals, played a significant role in promoting social reforms alongside nationalism. These publications reflected the period in which they were created, providing a glimpse into the society at the time and serving as primary sources for social, political, and economic history.

Periodicals and papers like Jnandarshan, Bamabodhini, and Hindoo Patriot published articles focusing on social reforms and the social problems facing Bengali society. Bamabodhini, published by Umesh Chandra Datta from 1863, gave strong emphasis to women’s issues, intending to focus on their needs and promote necessary knowledge amongst them. It helped bring about women’s progress in education and social matters, publishing articles and poems, discussing the notion of the ideal woman, the definition and character of ‘new Bengali women’, the significance of women’s schools, good motherhood, the institution of marriage, and emphatically raising the position of widows, vouching for Hindu widow remarriage.

The Hindoo Patriot, an English weekly, addressed contemporary social problems, such as the disability imposed on girls by Hindu marriage law regarding their right to marry. It also served as a mouthpiece of protest against the injustices faced by indigo peasants under the planters and later raised its voice against the British government’s actions in muzzling the press.

Hootum Pyanchar Naksha, authored by Kaliprasanna Sinha, reflected the strain and turmoil within Bengali society caused by factors like conversion to Christianity, Brahmoism, and social reform programmes, expressing these changes with irony and humour.

Dinabandhu Mitra’s play Neel Darpan, written against the background of the Indigo Revolt, impacted the intellectual circles of Bengal, leading the middle class to openly support the indigo rebels for the first time. It exposed the inhuman villainy and torture by indigo planters and highlighted the oppressive colonial machinery.

Grambarta Prakashika, edited by Kangal Harinath Majumdar, exposed the miserable condition of villages and the distress of villagers under British colonial rule. It also published articles on literature, philosophy, and science, promoted education in Bengal, and sought to create public opinion against the political and social wrongs done by the British colonial government.

Magazines published under the inspiration of Derozio by his students, such as Parthenon, Gyananneshan, Hindu Pioneer, and Bengal Spectator, discussed topics including the condition of the country, female education, science, and politics.

Furthermore, newspapers and journals like Samachar Darpan, Jnananveshan, and the Bengal Spectator published articles supporting the remarriage of Hindu widows. Contemporary journals like Sambad Kaumadi and Samachar Darpan also took up the cause of the abolition of the practice of Sati. Thus, periodicals were instrumental in discussing, critiquing, and advocating for social change during this era.

22. Discuss briefly the significance of women’s education as perceived by Iswarchandra Vidyasagar.

Answer: Iswarchandra Vidyasagar perceived women’s education as fundamentally significant for their emancipation. He realised that women could not achieve liberation if they remained uneducated. Consequently, he worked dedicatedly for the education of women throughout his whole life. He actively assisted J. E. Drinkwater Bethune in establishing the Hindu Female School (later Bethune Female School) in 1849 and served as its Honorary Secretary until 1869. Beyond this, Vidyasagar established numerous other female schools in the districts, some of which were run at his own expense, demonstrating his keen and sustained interest in promoting the cause of women’s education in the country.

23. Describe the key contributions of Raja Rammohan Roy towards education.

Answer: Raja Rammohan Roy made several key contributions towards education in nineteenth-century Bengal. He was the first Indian to feel the need for Western education and came to be known as the ‘First Modern Man of India’. Although an indirect supporter of the Hindu College, he directly founded the Anglo-Hindu School in 1822, where Western science, philosophy, and literature were taught.

Rammohan strongly advocated for the introduction of Western education in India. Protesting against an official proposal to establish a Sanskrit College in Calcutta, he sent a memorial to the Governor-General, Lord Amherst, in 1823, arguing in favour of Western learning.

Another important contribution was drawing the Christian Missions into the field of education. He requested the Church of Scotland Assembly to send competent teachers to India for the spread of English education and welcomed the famous missionary educationist, Dr. Alexander Duff.

24. Explain how the play ‘Neel Darpan’ influenced contemporary Bengali society.

Answer: The play ‘Neel Darpan’, authored by Dinabandhu Mitra against the background of the Indigo Revolt (1859-1860), impacted the intellectual circles of Bengal. It exposed the grim picture of inhuman villainy and torture perpetrated by the indigo planters, most of whom were Europeans. Largely due to the efforts of Dinabandhu’s ‘Neel Darpan’, the Bengalee middle class for the first time came out in open support to the indigo rebels. Though the main theme was the plight of the indigo cultivators, the play also highlighted the oppressive machinery of the colonial rulers that suppressed the resistance of the natives at local levels.

25. Outline the main features of the social reform movements initiated by the Brahmo Samaj.

Answer: The Brahmo Samaj, founded by Raja Rammohan Roy, became the centre of the reformist movement in Bengal and initiated several social reforms. Key features included:

Opposition to Caste System: Rammohan Roy considered the caste system the greatest obstacle to patriotic feeling and aimed for the evolution of a casteless society.
Regeneration of Womenfolk: Rammohan sincerely believed that the improvement of society was not possible without the regeneration of women. His anti-Sati movement was an important landmark.
Promotion of Female Education: Under Debendranath Tagore, the Friends’ Social Welfare Society, associated with the Brahmo movement, aimed at promoting female education. Keshab Chandra Sen also advocated for ‘solid education’ for women to alleviate their miseries.
Abolition of Child Marriage and Polygamy: The Friends’ Social Welfare Society agitated for the abolition of child marriage and polygamy. Keshab Chandra Sen also roundly condemned these practices.
Support for Widow Remarriage: The Brahmo movement, under Debendranath Tagore, carried on an agitation in favour of widow remarriage. Keshab Chandra Sen was strongly in favour of it and actively helped in staging the play ‘Bidhava-Bibaha-Natak’ to generate public opinion.
Social Services and Welfare: The Brahmo movement included programmes of social services. Keshab Chandra Sen organized a volunteer party, Sangat Sabha, for famine relief in 1860. The movement concerned itself with the welfare of common people and labourers.
Upholding Human Rights and Nationalism: The Brahmo movement upheld human rights and its humanistic approach helped awaken the spirit of nationalism among the people.

26. Describe how Louis Henry Vivian Derozio influenced young intellectuals in Bengal.

Answer: Louis Henry Vivian Derozio, a teacher at the Hindu College, had a profound influence on the young intellectuals of Bengal, collectively known as Young Bengal or Derozians.

He moulded the minds of his brilliant students, constantly encouraging them to think freely and question all authority.

He promoted advanced ideas through his lectures and by organizing student societies like the Academic Association (1828) and the Society for the Acquisition of General Knowledge (1838), which held debates and discussions on literature, history, philosophy, and science, fostering an intellectual revolution.

Under his influence, students drew inspiration from Western thinkers like Bacon, Hume, and Tom Paine, and intensely studied Western literature.

He taught them about the evil effects of idolatry and superstition, leading many students to renounce the sacred thread (paita), give up daily prayers (reciting Homer instead if forced), and even challenge Brahmin priests by declaring “We take beef.”

Derozio inculcated a deep love for the motherland (India) among his students through his teachings and patriotic poems like ‘The Fakir of Jhungeera’. He urged them to live and die for truth.

The impetus to free thinking and the spirit of enquiry roused by Derozio led to the foundation of numerous debating clubs in Calcutta.

His students played an important role in the social reform of contemporary India, speaking loudly against idolatry and superstition.

27. Discuss the key factors leading to the abolition of Sati by Lord William Bentinck.

Answer: Lord William Bentinck, the Governor-General of India from 1828, was a ‘reformer by temperament’ and had already made up his mind about the question of Sati before arriving in India. Several factors supported his decision to finally abolish the practice.

There was a strong movement against the practice of Sati led by Raja Rammohan Roy, who, using the authority of Hindu shastras, proved there was no religious sanction for this evil practice. He organized a fiery campaign, including signature campaigns and petitions to the British Parliament. Contemporary journals like Sambad Kaumadi and Samachar Darpan also took up the cause.

Christian missionaries were very much opposed to the practice and supported its abolition. They had earlier, like the Danes of Serampore, Dutch at Chinsura, and French at Chandernagore, prohibited the practice in areas under their jurisdiction. Missionaries like William Carey studied Hindu scriptures, concluded Sati was not compulsory, and submitted a Memorial to Governor-General Lord Wellesley urging its prohibition. They also tried to mobilize public opinion in England against the practice.

Support also came from the Court of Directors in London, which had asked the Company’s government in 1823 to consider the abolition of Sati. Furthermore, Bentinck was armed with the opinion of a large number of judges and high officials in India who favoured abolition. Hindu Sanskrit scholars like Mrityunjoy Vidyalankar had also categorically stated that the practice of Sati was absolutely voluntary and by no means compulsory.

Armed with this support and driven by his own convictions, Lord Bentinck went ahead with his plan, and the practice of Sati was declared ‘illegal and punishable by the criminal courts’ by Regulation XVII in 1829.

28. What were the contributions of Raja Radhakanta Deb towards education and Hindu society?

Answer: Raja Radhakanta Deb was a significant figure in contemporary Bengal.

Regarding Hindu society, he was the leader of the conservatives who defended everything that passed as Hinduism. He and other conservatives were convinced that this was the only way of saving Hindu religion and society from the disintegrating forces at work. Reflecting this stance, when it appeared that the teaching of Derozio exercised a subversive influence on the Hindu way of life, Derozio was dismissed under pressure from Radhakanta and his associates.

Despite his conservative stance on religion and society, Radhakanta was a promoter of English education and science. He had a big hand in framing the rules and regulations of the Hindu College. He always insisted that the study and morals of the students should be the primary concern of the teachers. Aware of the importance of the study of science, Radhakanta contributed liberally to the fund raiser for sending Indian youths to England for higher studies in medicine and surgery. Interestingly, he also had deep respect for Tom Paine’s Age of Reason.

29. What were the characteristics of the Brahmo movement, and how did it impact social reforms in Bengal?

Answer: The Brahmo Movement was the product of the revolt against the Brahmanical orthodoxy and was not in any way the result of the English education or Western thought. Rammohan Roy, although a Brahmin by caste, renounced idolatry before he had acquired knowledge of English. He challenged the prevalent practice of the Hindus and tried to show that belief in many gods and worship of images were opposed to the teaching of the Vedas. The Brahmo Samaj, founded by Rammohan Roy, became the centre of the reformist movement in Bengal. The object of the Samaj was the promotion among different religious groups of a faith in the unity of the divine and of man, as also the inculcation of the spirit of tolerance.

Debendranath Tagore infused a new life into the Brahmo movement, transforming the Brahmo Samaj into a distinctive religion. He compiled the tenets of Brahmoism and sought to strengthen the unity of the members of the Samaj by introducing certain rituals, helping Indians withstand the onslaught of Westernization.

Under Keshab Chandra Sen, the movement became popular due to his dynamic personality, devotion, and enthusiasm. However, differences arose with Debendranath Tagore regarding the attitude towards social problems. Keshab Chandra did not like keeping the movement within the confines of religious reforms; rather, reforms of social evils were of greater importance to him. This led to divisions: Keshab Chandra formed the Brahmo Samaj of India in 1865, while Debendranath’s organization became known as the Adi Brahmo Samaj. A further division led to the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj in 1878, founded under the initiative of Bijay Krishna Goswamee and Shib Nath Shastri. In 1881, Keshab Chandra formed yet another new religious faith named Nababidhan.

Key characteristics of the Brahmo movement included its origin as a revolt against orthodoxy, its challenge to polytheism and image worship, its emphasis on the unity of God and man, and the spirit of tolerance. It evolved into a distinctive religion but also strongly emphasized social reform. The movement played an important role in the regeneration of India, spreading far and wide. It was not exclusively religious; it brought within its fold the programme of social services, such as Keshab Chandra Sen organizing the Sangat Sabha volunteer party in 1860 for famine relief. The movement concerned itself with the welfare of the common people and labourers, upheld human rights, and its humanistic approach helped awaken the spirit of nationalism amongst the people of the country.

The Brahmo movement significantly impacted social reforms in Bengal. Rammohan Roy considered the caste-system of Hindu society the greatest obstacle to patriotic feeling and aimed for the evolution of a casteless society. He sincerely believed that the improvement of society was not possible without the regeneration of the womenfolk, and his anti-Sati movement constituted an important landmark. After Rammohan, Debendranath Tagore took up the cause, aiming at promoting female education, the abolition of child-marriage and polygamy, and agitating in favour of widow remarriage. Keshab Chandra Sen dedicated himself to social reform, organizing welfare measures and sincerely believing that no substantial progress in society would be possible without the emancipation of women. He was strongly in favour of widow remarriage, actively helping stage the Bidhava-Bibaha-Natak (in 1859) to generate public opinion, and also roundly condemned polygamy and child-marriage. He advocated that a ‘solid education’ should be given to women to alleviate their miseries and help them play a prominent role in life and society.

30. How did Ramakrishna Paramhansa conceptualise religious harmony?

Answer: Ramakrishna Paramhansa conceptualised religious harmony, known as Sarva Dharma Samanwaya. He recognized differences among religions but, at the same time, was convinced that all religions lead to the same goal. Thus, he concluded that all the religions are valid and true.

Regarding religious harmony or sarva dharma samannay, Ramakrishna had to say that he had practiced all religions — Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity — as also the different paths of the Hindu sects. After the exercise, he found that it was the same god towards whom all were directing their steps. Ramakrishna found people quarrelling in the name of religion without realizing that He who is called Krishna is also called Siva, and bears the name of Jesus and Allah as well. According to him, it is the same Rama with a thousand names.

Thus, the message of religious harmony or Sarva Dharma Samammay of Ramakrishna is first of all the recognition of differences among religions. At the same time, the differences are to be overcome and harmony of religions established.

31. Explain the main arguments presented by Vidyasagar in favour of Hindu widow remarriage. How successful was his campaign?

Answer: Iswarchandra Vidyasagar began a campaign for widow remarriage during the mid-nineteenth century. He realized that the campaign for widow remarriage would have an appeal to the general people if it was backed by reference to Shastric instructions. Thus, Iswarchandra began studying sacred books. Vidyasagar raised his powerful voice, backed by the weight of immense traditional learning, in favour of widow remarriage. At last, he found what he wanted in a verse of the Parasara Samhita. In one of the Slokas, it has been categorically stated that a second marriage is sanctioned for women under certain conditions, and one of the conditions referred to is the death of the husband of a married woman.

In 1855, Vidyasagar published a pamphlet on the issue of remarriage of Hindu widow. In the pamphlet, he strongly refuted the argument advanced by the orthodox people imposing disability on a widow for remarriage. The arguments put forward by Vidyasagar caused a stir in the country and became the talking point everywhere. Meanwhile, a large number of petitions from Bengal, Madras, Bombay, Nagpur and other cities of India were sent to the Legislative Council requesting an Act legalizing the remarriage of Hindu widows. Strengthened by this movement, the British government in India finally passed the Act XV (Hindu Widow Remarriage Act) on 26 July 1856. The first widow remarriage took place on 7 December 1856 between Srischandra Vidyaratna and Kalimati Devi, who was a widow of only eleven years.

32. Discuss the developments leading to the establishment of Calcutta University. What impact did it have on higher education in Bengal?

Answer: The foundation of universities in India was laid by Wood’s Dispatch of 1854. This was prepared by Sir Charles Wood, the then Secretary of State for India. The Dispatch recommended the establishment of a university in each Presidency town (Calcutta, Bombay and Madras) on the model of the University of London. Following this recommendation, a University Committee was appointed to work out the details of a scheme. The University Committee submitted its report in 1856. A draft Bill for the University of Calcutta was approved by the Governor-General-in-Council, and the University Act was passed in 1857. Governor-General Lord Canning became the first Chancellor, and Sir James William Colvile its first Vice-Chancellor.

The establishment of Calcutta University had a significant impact. Joddu Nath Bose and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay became the first two graduates of the University in 1858. A very significant development was the admission of females into the University; Chandramukhi Bose and Kadambini Bose (Ganguli) were the first two women graduates of the University of Calcutta in 1882. A rapid increase in the number of students helped the cause of higher education. The foundation of the University of Calcutta was followed by the introduction of Western education in a big way, and this was one of the main factors that caused Indian awakening.

33. Evaluate the role of print media and literature in shaping nineteenth-century Bengali society, highlighting the contributions of periodicals like Bamabodhini and Hindoo Patriot.

Answer: The rich cultural heritage of Bengal found expression in print media as also in literature during the nineteenth century. Even before the introduction of Western education, Bengal was endowed with men of letters and thinkers who were critical of the then British rule and could also see through the weaknesses and pitfalls of the then Bengali society. The contribution of the print media (journals, newspapers, periodicals, etc.) in social and other fields, as also the part it played in promoting nationalism, can hardly be denied. Papers and periodicals like Jnandarshan, Bamabodhini, and Hindoo Patriot published articles on social reforms and the social problems facing the society. Newspapers are a primary source of history, reflecting the period in which they are created and providing a glimpse into the society at the time, including contemporary political and economic history.

Bamabodhini, a Bengali periodical first published in 1863 by Umesh Chandra Datta, gave strong emphasis to women’s issues. Sri Datta wrote that the paper intended to focus on the needs of the womenfolk and promote necessary knowledge in different subjects amongst women. Published until 1923, Bamabodhini helped bring about women’s progress in education and social matters. It published articles and poems, including essays dealing with the notion of the ideal woman in Bengalee society, the definition and character of ‘new Bengali women’, the significance of women’s schools, the virtues of good motherhood, and the institution of marriage. Most importantly, the Bamabodhini emphatically raised the position of widows in society and vouched for Hindu widow remarriage. Its regular features also included contemporary international events and book reviews.

Hindoo Patriot, an English weekly published from Kolkata, was the most famous paper of Bengal for quite some time. First published in 1853 by Madhusudan Roy under the editorship of Girish Chandra Ghosh, it became the leading news weekly under the editorship of Harish Chandra Mukherjee, the most promising correspondent and journalist of contemporary Bengal. The Hindoo Patriot addressed contemporary social problems; for example, it opined that the Hindu marriage law imposed disability on girls exercising their right to marry on their own initiative and remarked that abolishing early marriage would destroy the system. It was also a newspaper with a national outlook, publishing articles during the Revolt of 1857. The paper became a mouthpiece of protest against the injustices done to the peasants by the indigo planters, publishing stories narrating vividly how they were oppressed. Under the editorship of Krishnadas, after Harish Chandra’s death, the paper raised its voice against the British Government’s actions in muzzling the press.

34. Describe the educational reforms in Bengal initiated during British rule, including the roles played by Indian reformers and British administrators.

Answer: Educational reforms in nineteenth-century Bengal involved both British administrative actions and initiatives by Indian reformers and others. While Indians learnt the English language from the British, it was not the British government that initially introduced English education; government initiative began around 1813, though Christian missionaries had already started efforts.

Initially, British officials in India were not interested in changing the prevalent education system. The year 1813 became a landmark with the Charter Act passed by the British Parliament, which provided, amongst other things, a sum of one lac rupees to be set aside yearly for the promotion of learning in India. However, the East India Company’s government could not spend the money due to a controversy regarding the type of education to be introduced. Opinion was divided between the Anglicists, who favoured introducing Western scientific knowledge, and the Orientalists, who favoured promoting traditional Indian learning. Key figures in the Anglicist party included W.W. Bird and C.E. Trevelyan, while Orientalists included H. T. Princep and Elliot. In 1823, the Governor-General-in Council appointed a general committee of Public Instruction to manage the grant.

The controversy was ultimately settled in 1835 by the initiative of Lord William Bentinck, the Governor-General, influenced by Lord Macaulay, the Law Member. Macaulay, in his Minute, recommended introducing English education through the medium of English. Consequently, Lord Bentinck finalized the education policy through a Resolution, declaring that the government would devote the stipulated funds to promote European literature and sciences among Indians, with English as the sole medium of instruction. The General Committee of Public Instruction then proceeded with full vigour to spread English education. The demand grew rapidly, especially in Bengal. In 1844, Lord Hardinge further stimulated English education by linking knowledge of English with government employment, declaring preference for English-knowing Indians.

Several institutions were established. Calcutta Medical College was founded in 1835 to impart Western medical science systematically, marking the end of official patronage for indigenous medical learning. Its first Principal was Dr. M. J. Bramley, and its objective was to train native youths aged 14-20 according to the European model. The foundation of universities was laid by Wood’s Dispatch of 1854, prepared by Sir Charles Wood. It recommended establishing universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras on the model of the University of London. Following this, the University Act was passed in 1857, establishing the University of Calcutta. Lord Canning became the first Chancellor and Sir James William Colvile the first Vice-Chancellor. The introduction of Western education through such institutions was a major factor in the Indian awakening.

Indian reformers and other individuals played crucial roles. Raja Rammohan Roy, known as the ‘First Modern Man of India’, was the first Indian to feel the need for Western education. He founded the Anglo-Hindu School in 1822, teaching Western science, philosophy, and literature. In 1823, he protested against a proposal for a Sanskrit College, advocating for Western education instead. He also encouraged Christian Missions to send teachers and welcomed the missionary educationist Dr. Alexander Duff.

Iswarchandra Vidyasagar worked tirelessly for women’s education, realizing their emancipation depended on it. He helped J. E. Drinkwater Bethune establish the Hindu Female School (later Bethune School) in 1849 and served as its Honorary Secretary. He opened many female schools, promoted Bengali education by establishing Bengali schools, and wrote the pioneering Bengali primer Barnaparichay in 1855.

David Hare realized the need for Western learning and sciences and encouraged free-thinking and secularism. He was a founder of the Hindu College in 1817, instrumental in establishing the School Book Society for textbooks, and founded the School Society in 1818 for women’s education.

John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune devoted himself to female education. With help from figures like Ramgopal Ghosh and Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, he established the Hindu Female School (Hindu Balika Vidyalaya) in Calcutta in 1849, a major first effort that significantly impacted Bengali society. The school was later renamed Bethune School.

Raja Radhakanta Deb, though a leader of conservatives, was a promoter of English education and science. He played a significant role in framing the rules for the Hindu College and contributed funds for higher studies abroad.

35. Discuss the views of Swami Vivekananda on Neo-Vedanta and his vision of Hinduism.

Answer: Neo-Vedanta, also called Neo-Hinduism, are the terms which characterize interpretation of Hinduism that developed during the nineteenth century. In other words, Neo-Vedanta is a re-establishment and re-construction of Vedanta of Sankara with modern arguments suited to modern man. Neo-Vedantism is a re-establishment and re-statement, reconstruction and revaluation, reorientation and reinterpretation of the Advaita Vedanta of Sankara with modern language, suited to a modern man, adjusting with all the challenges of modern life. The practical applications of Neo-Vedanta are to be found in the life and teaching of Sri Ramakrishna. It was left to Swami Vivekananda to develop them into the philosophy of Neo-Vedanta and lay the foundation of practical Vedanta.

Vivekananda’s vision of Hinduism was divided into two parts — its glorious past, and a degenerate present. India’s past was golden and she was the teacher of the spiritual world. But the Hindus of the nineteenth century were superstitious and performers of elaborate rituals. The Hindus were jealous of anybody who might provide leadership. Vivekananda also complained of lack of manliness among the Hindus. He did not hesitate to say that the Hindus ‘possessing the malicious nature befitting a slave’. To neutralize such a depressing state of Hindu life Vivekananda offered his new ideas. He spoke about the past glory of the Hindus. According to him, in the hoary past the Hindus acted as teachers to a world dependent on their spirituality. Vedanta was an expression of Hindu spiritual supremacy which, to Vivekananda, was the one universal religion. He linked this concept to a two-fold division of the world between East and West.

Vivekananda admitted that the West had certain positive achievements such as freedom and respect to women. Besides, its emphasis on work and the high level of material prosperity were, indeed, commendable. But at the same time the West was ‘gross, material, selfish and sensual’. To Vivekananda compared to the spiritual East the West was materialistic. Of course by referring to the ‘spiritual East’ he meant India and Hinduism. Vivekananda set before the people the great ideal of conquest of the world by India. This was possible with the transfer of technology of the West and its integration with the Hindu culture. In turn Hindus would transfer their spirituality to the West.

36. Explain the nature of the Bengal Renaissance, providing arguments for and against comparing it to the European Renaissance.

Answer: The intellectual awakening of Bengal in the nineteenth century is commonly known as the Bengal Renaissance. The term, obviously, has been derived from the Italian and for that matter European Renaissance of fifteenth century. Thus a comparison between the European Renaissance and that of Bengal is inevitable. There was a dawn of a new period in Europe through the Renaissance. In the same vein some of the scholars preferred to say that through the Bengal Renaissance there was the emergence of a new period in Bengal as also in India.

Still there are others who believe that there is hardly any resemblance between the European and Bengal Renaissance. An opinion regarding the Bengal Renaissance is that there is no similarity at all between the two. The grounds are:

(i) The European Renaissance had a much wider scope than that of Bengal counterpart.
(ii) The European Renaissance gave birth to many-sided resurgence, such as, the Geographical Discoveries, Reformation, Humanism and so on. The Bengal Renaissance did not have any such capacity to generate.
(iii) The argument advanced by them is that the characteristic feature of the Bengal Renaissance was to lean heavily on the colonial British Raj. Now, if the colonists British rule was regressive, then they say, the Bengal Renaissance was also bound to be retrogression.
(iv) In the two Renaissances the political frame was also different in many ways. For example, in Europe the Renaissance began in an atmosphere of political freedom. The European states were free and independent. But in India, and for that matter in Bengal the intellectual Renaissance flowed under colonial subjection.

Professor Amales Tripathi did not hesitate to say that those who sought to equate the cultural flowering during the nineteenth century Bengal would commit a fault. In fact, he argued that it was not possible to generate in India the type of the Renaissance found in Europe. Thus in his book The Extremist Challenge Professor Tripathi dubbed Bengal Renaissance as ersatz (artificial or fake).

There is a trend to find in the ‘renaissance’ a synthesis of liberalism and conservatism. But for Professor Susobhan Sarkar a synthesis is a fusion of two opposites into a third higher entity. But in Bengal Renaissance the higher third could not be found; and thus the conflict about the ‘renaissance’, according to Prof. S. Sarkar, persisted and is still continuing.

The admirers of the nineteenth century ‘renaissance’ tried to find a parallel with the Russian intellectual history of the same period. Professor Sumit Sarkar is of the opinion that the parallel ‘seems fruitful only in terms of the difference it reveals.’

Those who are critical of the thought of a Renaissance in Bengal also point out that the educated community of Bengal failed to understand the exploitative nature of the British colonial rule. They were interested mainly looking at their immediate benefits. Just that is what had happened with the Young Bengal.

Ron'e Dutta

Ron'e Dutta is a journalist, teacher, aspiring novelist, and blogger who manages Online Free Notes. An avid reader of Victorian literature, his favourite book is Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë. He dreams of travelling the world. You can connect with him on social media. He does personal writing on ronism.

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