Social Institutions: NBSE Class 11 Sociology notes

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Get summaries, questions, answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF and guide of chapter 3, Social Institutions: NBSE Class 11 Sociology textbook, which is part of the syllabus for students studying under the Nagaland Board. These solutions, however, should only be treated as references and can be modified/changed. 

Summary

Social institutions are patterns of behavior that meet social needs. They are universal and found in all societies. The main institutions include kinship, economic, political, religious, and educational systems.

Marriage is a key institution that satisfies basic needs like regulating sexual drive and legitimizing children. It is a stable union between a man and woman. There are two main forms. Monogamy is when one man marries one woman. Polygamy involves multiple spouses. Polygyny is when a man has many wives. Polyandry is when a woman has many husbands.

The family is the basic unit of society. It helps with procreation and socialization. Families can be nuclear or joint. A nuclear family has parents and their children. A joint family includes more relatives living together. Families perform essential functions like providing sex gratification, raising children, and offering a home. They also handle economic roles, education, healthcare, and social control.

Kinship refers to relationships based on marriage, blood, or adoption. Kinship can be affinal, through marriage, or consanguineous, through blood. Incest taboos forbid sexual relations among close relatives. Kinship terms help identify relationships within families.

Economic systems organize how societies produce and distribute goods. Primitive economies rely on hunting and gathering. Agrarian economies focus on farming. Industrial economies involve manufacturing using machines. Mixed economies combine elements of capitalism and socialism. Developed economies have high living standards while developing ones are growing.

Political systems maintain order and stability. Power is the ability to influence others. Authority is legitimate power. Types of authority include traditional, rational-legal, and charismatic. Monarchy is rule by one person. Democracy is rule by the people. Democracies can be direct or representative.

Religion involves beliefs in supernatural beings and related practices. It includes animism, belief in spirits; polytheism, belief in many gods; and monotheism, belief in one god. Religion unites communities and influences other aspects of life.

Education transmits knowledge and skills to younger generations. It can be formal, happening in schools, or informal, occurring in daily life. Formal education has structured content and rules. Informal education happens through family and community activities.

These institutions work together to shape human societies. They ensure continuity and stability across generations. Understanding them helps explain how societies function and evolve over time.

Textbook solutions

Very Short Answer Type Questions

1. What is social institution? (’07, ’12)

Answer : A social institution refers to well-established practices and patterns of behaviour or ways of doing things in society while satisfying various social needs. According to Maclver and Page, institutions are “established forms or conditions of procedure characteristic of group activity”. Kingsley Davis defines an institution as “a set of interwoven folkways, mores and laws built around one or more functions”.

2. Give two examples of social institutions.

Answer : Two examples of social institutions are: (i) Family
(ii) Marriage

3. Define marriage. (’09)

Answer : Marriage is a socially sanctioned stable union of a man and woman for the satisfaction of the sexual need and for procreation. It defines the relationship between a man and a woman as husband and wife, marking the beginning of family life and determining the legitimacy of children.

4. What is monogamy?

Answer : Monogamy is a form of marriage in which one man (husband) is married to one woman (wife) at a given time. It is the most accepted form of marriage and is found in all types of societies.

5. Define polygamy. (’09)

Answer : Polygamy is a form of marriage in which either a woman has more than one husband or a man has more than one wife. It includes two forms: polygyny, where a man is married to more than one woman, and polyandry, where a woman is married to more than one man.

6. What is polygyny? (’10)

Answer : Polygyny is a union in which a man is married to more than one woman who are alive.

7. What is polyandry?

Answer : Polyandry is the marriage of a woman to more than one man who are alive.

8. What is sororal polygyny?

Answer : Sororal polygyny is a type of polygyny where a man is married to two or more sisters.

9. What is non-sororal polygyny?

Answer : Non-sororal polygyny is a type of polygyny where a man is married to two or more women who are not sisters.

10. What is fraternal polyandry?

Answer : Fraternal polyandry is a type of polyandry where a woman is married to two or more brothers.

11. What is non-fraternal polyandry?

Answer : Non-fraternal polyandry is a form of polyandry where a woman is married to two or more men who are not brothers.

12. What is a nuclear family? (’09)

Answer : A nuclear family is a group of persons consisting of a husband, wife, and their unmarried children. It is the smallest composite family unit.

13. Mention an essential function of family.

Answer : An essential function of the family is the satisfaction of sex gratification, which is necessary for the perpetuation of society.

14. What is family of orientation?

Answer : The family of orientation is the family in which an individual is born and brought up, including parents, brothers, and sisters.

15. What is meant by family of procreation?

Answer : The family of procreation is the family which an individual establishes through marriage, including the married couple and their offspring.

16. What is affinal kinship?

Answer : Affinal kinship is kinship based on affinity (nearness) due to marriage, as between a husband and wife. Marriage establishes relationships not only between a husband and wife but also between the husband and the wife’s relatives, and between the wife and the husband’s relatives.

17. What is consanguineous kinship?

Answer : Consanguineous kinship is based on common blood (consanguinity). The relationship between parents and children and between siblings (children of the same parents like brothers and sisters) is consanguineous kinship. Consanguineous kinship extends to all who have a common ancestry or descent, like grandparents and grandchildren, cousins, and so on.

18. Which type of kins is related through marriage? (’06)

Answer : Affinal kins are related through marriage.

19. What is incest taboo?

Answer : The incest taboo prohibits sexual contact among people defined as relatives, typically between parents and children, and between brothers and sisters, although there are rare exceptions. The taboo is found in all societies, although who is included as ‘family’ varies widely from only a few close blood relatives to everyone remotely related.

20. Who are secondary kins?

Answer : The primary kin of our first-degree kin are our secondary kin. They are not directly related to us but through one of our primary kin. Examples of secondary kin are: father’s father (i.e., paternal grandfather), mother’s father (i.e., maternal grandfather), father’s mother (i.e., paternal grandmother), wife’s or husband’s brothers and sisters, their parents, and so on.

21. How many types of tertiary kins an ‘ego’ can have?

Answer : An ‘ego’ can have 151 types of tertiary kins.

22. What is ‘avunculate’ behaviour?

Answer : ‘Avunculate’ behaviour is the kind of behaviour or usage which gives the maternal uncle an important status so far as his sister’s children are concerned. The maternal uncle is considered more important than even the father. The maternal uncle transfers his property to his nephew (i.e., the sister’s son). The nephew works for him rather than his own father. Sometimes the sister’s children are brought up in their maternal uncle’s family. Avunculate is common in matrilineal societies.

23. What is ‘couvade’?

Answer : ‘Couvade’ is kinship behaviour in which a husband imitates the behaviour of his wife during pregnancy and childbirth. The husband also leads the life of an invalid along with his wife whenever she gives birth to a child. He refrains from active life, goes on a sick diet, and observes certain taboos. This practice is common among the Khasi tribe of Meghalaya and Toda tribe of Nilgiri Hills.

24. What is ‘teknonymy’?

Answer : ‘Teknonymy’ is a usage where two kinsmen do not address each other directly but rather through a third person or symbol. The practice is very common in rural India where women generally do not utter the names of their husbands or elderly in-laws. A woman refers to her husband as the father of her child, using the name of the child.

25. What is classificatory term in kinship terminology?

Answer : A classificatory term in kinship terminology is the term which applies to persons of two or more kinship categories. For example, the term ‘cousin’ is used to refer to father’s brother’s son, father’s sister’s son, mother’s brother’s son, as well as to mother’s sister’s son. Similarly, the term ‘uncle’ refers to mother’s brother, father’s brother, mother’s sister’s husband, and father’s sister’s husband.

26. What are derivative kinship terms? (’14)

Answer : Derivative kinship terms are those kinship terms which are coined by joining suffixes or prefixes on objectives to the elementary kinship terms. Examples of such terms are grandfather, sister-in-law, step-son, and great-grandfather.

27. What are economic institutions?

Answer : Economic institutions are defined as “basic ideas, norms, and statutes which govern the allocation of scarce goods in any society, be it primitive or civilized” according to Kingsley Davis. Ogburn and Nimkoff define them as “the activities of men in relation to food and property.”

28. What is primitive economy?

Answer : Primitive economy is characterised by hunting and food-gathering societies. In the economically simplest of societies, people live by hunting wild animals and by gathering food as it grows naturally in the form of fruits, nuts, and vegetables.

29. What is agrarian economy?

Answer : Agrarian economy emerged when agriculture or settled cultivation became the main economic activity. It implied the cultivation of crops on the same land, leading to a more assured food supply, growth of population, and emergence of village communities.

30. What is an industrial economy?

Answer : An industrial economy is the modern economy whose foundation was laid in the middle of the eighteenth century with the advent of the Industrial Revolution in England. It refers to the replacement of manual power by mechanical power in the production process.

31. What is the dominant occupation in an agrarian society? (’08)

Answer : The dominant occupation in an agrarian society is agriculture or settled cultivation.

32. What is mixed economy?

Answer : Mixed economy is a compromise between the two economic systems, capitalism and socialism. It is a system which is free from the evils of both capitalism and socialism but integrates the good features of both. It is known as a golden mean between capitalism and socialism.

33. What is meant by political system?

Answer : Political system refers to the system of rules and regulations or control mechanisms to control the behavior of people in a society. It includes political institutions that deal with order and stability in society by enforcing norms, rules, and laws. The political system enjoys the monopoly of legitimate power or authority within a given territory.

34. What is monarchy?

Answer : Monarchy is the rule of a single person. It denotes simply the rule of one man (or woman), whether good or bad, legitimate or unlawful, wise or incompetent. In modern terms, it designates a particular type of one-person rule characterized by legitimate blood descent, where power passes through family from generation to generation.

35. What is democracy?

Answer : Democracy is the rule of the people. In a democracy, the people participate in their own political governance. It is a government that depends on the consent of the governed, meaning the supreme power is exercised by the people or citizens as a whole. Practically, this involves mechanisms for people to participate in decision-making and exercise control over the government, which remains in power so long as the people wish it to be in power.

36. Define religion. (’14)

Answer : Religion is “a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, that is, things set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a church.” It also involves systems of beliefs about supernatural beings, practices expressing these beliefs, relationships with others who accept the same beliefs and practices, and concepts of heaven and hell.

37. What is animism? (’12)

Answer : Animism is the belief in the soul (anima) or spirit. It is the belief that all objects, animals, and human beings are inhabited by spirits or souls. Animism is found in many tribal societies, such as the traditional religion of Naga tribes.

38. Give an example of polytheism.

Answer : Hinduism is an example of polytheism.

39. What is monotheism? (’06)

Answer : Monotheism is the belief in only one God. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are examples of monotheism.

40. What is education?

Answer : Education, in its broadest sense, is the transmission of knowledge and skills to the younger generation. It refers to a learning process and consists not merely in imparting knowledge but also in providing for the development of innate abilities of individuals and the learning of skills. In a broader sense, education is the process whereby the social heritage of a society is passed on from one generation to another so that the younger generation learns the rules of behavior of the society into which one is born.

41. What is informal education? (’09)

Answer : Informal education refers to the education which an individual acquires in the course of day-to-day life activities in the family and outside in the company of others. It is imparted through family and kinship groups where the language is only oral, and learning occurs by doing. People learn their language, rituals and ceremonies, norms and values, and skills through family and community activities, folklores, and folk-tales.

42. What is the meaning of ‘shiksha’?

Answer : The term ‘shiksha’ means ‘acquisition of culture’. Therefore, education, referred to as ‘shikshana’ in the Indian context, implies becoming a cultured person.

Short Answer Type Questions

1. What are the two major forms of marriage?

Answer : The two major forms of marriage are:

(i) Monogamy
(ii) Polygamy

2. Explain briefly the two forms of polygamy. (’06)

Answer : The two forms of polygamy are:

(i) Polygyny, which is a union in which a man is married to more than one woman who are alive.
(ii) Polyandry, which is the marriage of a woman to more than one man who are alive.

3. Explain the various forms of polygamy.

Answer : The various forms of polygamy are:

(i) Polygyny, which can be further distinguished into two types:
(a) Sororal polygyny, if a man is married to two or more sisters.
(b) Non-sororal polygyny, if a man is married to two or more women who are not sisters.
(ii) Polyandry, which can also be of two types:
(a) Fraternal polyandry, if a woman is married to two or more brothers.
(b) Non-fraternal polyandry, if a woman is married to two or more men who are not brothers.

4. Differentiate between polygyny and polyandry. (’08, ’12)

Answer : Polygyny is a union in which a man is married to more than one woman who are alive. On the other hand, polyandry is the marriage of a woman to more than one man who are alive.

5. Distinguish between fraternal and non-fraternal polyandry.

Answer : Fraternal polyandry occurs when a woman is married to two or more brothers, while non-fraternal polyandry occurs when a woman is married to two or more men who are not brothers.

6. Distinguish between sororal and non-sororal polygyny.

Answer : Sororal polygyny occurs when a man is married to two or more sisters, whereas non-sororal polygyny occurs when a man is married to two or more women who are not sisters.

7. Why is family an important institution?

Answer : Family is an important institution because it is a basic or fundamental institution of society, essential for procreation and socialisation. It is the most important social group and is universal, as it has existed throughout human history and is found in all societies.

8. Write a note on the social function of family. (’06)

Answer : The social functions of family are diverse in nature and include:

• Satisfaction of Sex: The family provides a socially sanctioned stable union for the gratification of the sexual drive, which is a biological need.
• Procreation and Rearing: The family ensures the perpetuation of society by providing legitimate status, care, training, and socialisation to offspring, laying the foundation for an individual’s personality.
• Provision of a Home: The family provides a place where members find comfort, affection, and a common place for expressing emotions like love, anger, joy, and fear.
• Economic Function: The family serves as an economic unit, ensuring economic security for its members and acting as a producing-consuming unit in traditional settings.
• Education: The family imparts informal education, introducing children to the culture of society and teaching social qualities and virtues like citizenship, love, cooperation, tolerance, obedience, and sacrifice.
• Health Care: The family takes care of the health of its members, protects against diseases, and provides support during childbearing and child-rearing periods.
• Social Control: The family preserves and transmits culture to the new generation, regulating behavior through internalisation of social norms.
• Religious Functions: The family acts as the center of religious training, teaching religious virtues and principles through rituals, discourses, and sermons.
• Recreation: The family performs recreational functions by providing scope for activities such as ceremonies, religious performances, and festivals, being the most important source of love and affection.

9. What is meant by ‘family of orientation’ and ‘family of procreation’? (’06, ’09, ’13)

Answer : The family of orientation refers to the family in which an individual is born and brought up, including parents, brothers, and sisters. The family of procreation refers to the family that an individual establishes through marriage, including the married couple and their offspring.

10. How does family socialise the individual?

Answer : Family socialises the individual by performing functions such as education, which is a part of socialisation. Through the process of informal education, children are introduced into the culture of society and taught various social qualities. The virtues of citizenship, love, cooperation, tolerance, obedience, sacrifice, etc., are imparted to the new generation. Thus, the individual becomes a person in the family.

11. What is joint family? (’08)

Answer : The joint family consists of more than one primary family. All the members are blood relations or close kin and generally share a common residence, kitchen, and property. Joint family generally consists of three or more generations. Two or more collateral families living together in a common residence and sharing a common kitchen and property also form a joint family. Joint family is the hallmark of traditional Indian society having very deep roots in history.

12. What is kinship? What are the two types of kinship?

Answer : Kinship is a social relationship among individuals based on marriage, blood, or adoption. The two types of kinship are:

(i) Affinal kinship, which is based on affinity due to marriage, and
(ii) Consanguineous kinship, which is based on common blood.

13. What are the two types of kinship? (’09)

Answer : The two types of kinship are: (i) Affinal kinship
(ii) Consanguineous kinship

14. Differentiate between affinal and consanguinal kinship. (’10)

Answer : Affinal kinship is based on affinity or nearness due to marriage, such as the relationship between a husband and wife, or between a husband and the wife’s relatives, and between the wife and the husband’s relatives. Consanguineous kinship, on the other hand, is based on common blood or descent, such as the relationship between parents and children, siblings, grandparents and grandchildren, and cousins.

15. Differentiate ‘avoidance’ with ‘joking relationship’.

Answer : Avoidance is a type of kinship usage where some restrictions are imposed on close interaction between certain kinsmen, leading to behaviors such as avoiding direct talk, physical contact, and maintaining minimal social interaction. Joking relationship, in contrast, allows relatives to crack jokes at each other’s expense, tease one another, and make fun of each other without taking offense or minding each other’s conduct.

16. Differentiate between ‘avunculate’ and ‘amitate’ usages.

Answer : ‘Avunculate’ is a type of kinship behavior that assigns an important status to the maternal uncle concerning his sister’s children. In this system, the maternal uncle is considered more significant than the father, often transferring his property to his nephew (the sister’s son), and sometimes the nephew works for him rather than his own father. In contrast, ‘amitate’ is a kinship behavior where a special role is assigned to the father’s sister. Her role resembles that of the maternal uncle in avunculate systems, as children show her special respect, may be brought up in her house, and inherit her property.

17. Mention the three types of kinship terms classified on the basis of linguistic structure.

Answer : The three types of kinship terms classified on the basis of linguistic structure are:

(i) Elementary Term, which cannot be further reduced or broken down into simpler words, such as father, mother, brother, and sister.
(ii) Derivative Term, which is coined by joining suffixes or prefixes to elementary kinship terms, such as grandfather, sister-in-law, and step-son.
(iii) Descriptive Term, which is formed by combining two or more elementary terms, such as wife’s sister, brother’s wife, or son’s wife.

18. Give a brief account on primitive economy. (’14)

Answer : A primitive economy is characterized by hunting and food-gathering societies. In such economies, people live by hunting wild animals and gathering food that grows naturally, such as fruits, nuts, and vegetables. They use primitive weapons like spears for hunting. These societies are nomadic, as they must move to follow game and natural food supplies. Such societies are extremely small, often consisting of only a dozen members, and are dominated by kinship relationships. There are virtually no political and economic institutions in the modern sense. Sharing is a norm in these societies, with close cooperation and minimal hierarchy, and leadership exists only for specific activities. Though the hunting and gathering lifestyle seems alien to modern standards, it has been the most common form of society throughout human history.

19. What are the features of traditional agrarian economy?

Answer : The features of traditional agrarian economy are:

(a) Agricultural activities were only for consumption.
(b) Agricultural yield was low, and there was often scarcity of food.
(c) Work was mainly manual, done with hands and the use of animal and human power.
(d) Agriculture depended mainly on weather.
(e) There was great unevenness in land holdings, with the majority of people being landless or holding small pieces of land.

20. Write two important features of modern industrial economy. (’10)

Answer : Two important features of modern industrial economy are:

(i) The production system is very expensive because huge capital is needed for purchasing raw material, machines, tools, and other capital goods.
(ii) Several institutions such as financing agencies, marketing agencies, transportation, and communication systems play vital roles.

21. Distinguish between agrarian and industrial economy.

Answer : The distinctions between agrarian and industrial economy are:

(i) Agrarian economy is dominated by the secondary sector, which involves turning raw materials into manufactured goods, whereas industrial economy is dominated by the tertiary sector, which includes producing services like law, medicine, teaching, etc.
(ii) In agrarian economy, agricultural activities are primarily for consumption, while in industrial economy, production of goods and services is for both consumption and sale in the market.
(iii) Agrarian economy relies mainly on manual labor, weather, and traditional techniques, whereas industrial economy is skill-oriented, capital-intensive, and uses advanced technology and machinery.

22. Explain briefly the term “mixed economy”. (’13)

Answer : Mixed economy is a compromise between the two economic systems, capitalism and socialism. It is a system that is free from the evils of both capitalism and socialism but integrates the good features of both. That is why it is known as a mixed economy, which is a golden mean between capitalism and socialism. In a mixed economy, planning imparts the merits of a socialist economy and seeks to remove the defects of capitalism. The economy is divided into (a) public and (b) private sectors for the purpose of economic development. The public sector is under the direct control of the government, which regulates its production and distribution. Services with low profit expectations and large investments with long gestation periods are operated under the public sector. The private sector is managed by individuals, usually in farming, industry, and retailing. The state regulates this sector by providing suggestions, subsidies, credit facilities, raw materials, cheap power, concession transport facilities, tax holidays, and administrative controls.

23. Establish the differences between developed economy and developing economy. (’12)

Answer : A developed economy is largely mechanised and dominated by the tertiary sector, which includes producing services like law, medicine, accounting, teaching, social work, cleaning, and entertainment. It is characterised by high levels of living, high per capita income, high consumption levels, good health services, low death rates, low birth rates, and sufficient stock of capital goods to employ the available labour force using modern techniques of production. Developed economies also exhibit advanced technology, sophisticated monetary arrangements, division of labour, and specialisation of work roles.

A developing economy, on the other hand, is characterised by an economy dominated by the secondary sector, which involves turning raw materials into manufactured goods. Such industries include automotive production, construction, clothing, food processing, and all other manufacturing. A developing economy has good potential for using more capital, labour, or natural resources to support its present population or achieve a higher level of living. If its per capita income level is already fairly high, it can support a larger population. Thus, a developing economy has great potential to use more resources to provide a higher level of living for the entire population of the country.

24. What is the importance of political system in society? (’10)

Answer : The political system is necessary for the orderly functioning of society as a whole. It has always existed ever since the emergence of society. The political system acts as a system of rules and regulations or a control mechanism to control the behaviour of people in a society. Both written laws and customary laws serve as means of social control in civilised societies. At every stage in the history of society, there has been some kind of political system. The political structure that developed in primitive societies was based on kinship and religion. With the growth of agricultural economy, the political structure evolved into the feudal form of government. The Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution in the 18th century paved the way for democracy. Traditional values of orthodoxy, hierarchy, monarchy, and autocracy were replaced by rationality, equality, democracy, and secularism. Political authority shifted from the church and monarch to the body of people called ‘government’, elected by the people. Democracy is currently the most popular political system in the world.

25. What are the essential elements of a modern state according to Max Weber?

Answer : According to Max Weber, the essential elements of a modern state are:

(a) A population,
(b) A defined territory,
(c) A government, and
(d) Sovereignty.

The state exercises a monopoly over the legitimate use of power within a given territory and can use force to implement its policies.

26. Distinguish between power and authority. (’14)

Answer : Power is the ability to exercise influence over persons, irrespective of the will of the persons, through force or the threat of force. Authority, on the other hand, is legitimate power. What distinguishes power from authority is legitimacy, which refers to whether the exercise of power is rightful or not. Force is exercised by both the robber and the policeman, but the force exercised by the latter is legitimate, while the former’s is not.

27. Distinguish between monarchy and democracy.

Answer : Monarchy is the rule of a single person, whether good or bad, legitimate or unlawful, wise or incompetent. The power of a monarch is customary and passes through family from generation to generation. Democracy, on the other hand, is the rule of the people, where the people participate in their own political governance. Democracy depends on the consent of the governed and is a government in which the people hold sovereignty, meaning the supreme power to take decisions. In a democracy, there must be mechanisms available for the people to participate in decision-making and exercise control over the government, which remains in power so long as the people wish it to be in power.

28. Give a definition of religion?

Answer : Religion is defined as a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, that is, things set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a church.

29. Write any four basic characteristics of religion. (’06)

Answer : The four basic characteristics of religion are:

(i) Religion is a system of beliefs and practices shared by the members of a community.
(ii) The aim of religious beliefs and practices is to come to terms with supernatural powers and imply a sense of dependence on them.
(iii) Religion is concerned with the metaphysical world and is based on non-empirical beliefs.
(iv) Religion is a universal social reality found in all societies in some form or other.

30. State three basic aims of education. (’06, ’08)

Answer : The three basic aims of education are:

(i) To integrate the individual with society.
(ii) To perpetuate culture.
(iii) To increase the efficiency of individuals.

31. Define education. Point out the basic aims of education.

Answer : Education is the transmission of knowledge and skills to the younger generation. It is a process whereby the social heritage of a society is passed on from one generation to another so that the younger generation learns the rules of behaviour of the society into which one is born. The basic aims of education are to maintain society and to develop the personality of individuals. Other aims include integrating the individual with society, perpetuating culture, and increasing the efficiency of individuals.

32. Briefly discuss how formal education differs from informal education. (’07, ’12)

Answer : Formal education is imparted in a well-defined institutional setting and characterizes the modern system of education. It consists of an organized structure, a definite and properly spelled-out content of education, and definite rules and regulations. Informal education, on the other hand, is acquired in the course of day-to-day life activities in the family and outside in the company of others. It is mainly through family and community activities, folklores, and folk-tales that people learn their language, rituals and ceremonies, norms and values, and skills. Informal education dominates in societies where there are no schools or an insufficient number of schools to provide education to children. Even in modern societies, children receive informal education alongside formal education.

Essay Type Questions

1. Explain the meaning and forms of marriage.

Answer : Marriage is a socially sanctioned stable union of a man and woman for the satisfaction of the sexual need and for procreation. The institution of marriage defines the relationship between a man and a woman as husband and wife. It is also important in deciding the legitimacy of the children. There is economic cooperation between the persons who are married, as also between them and their children.

There are two basic forms of marriage found in different parts of the world or in different societies:
(i) Monogamy and
(ii) Polygamy.

Monogamy (single marriage) is a marriage of one man (husband) with one woman (wife) at a given time. It is the most accepted form of marriage and is found in all types of societies. In a society where monogamy prevails, a man or a woman can marry again only after the death of the spouse or the dissolution of the marriage through divorce.

Polygamy (multiple or plural marriage) is a marriage in which either a woman has more than one husband or a man has more than one wife. Thus, polygamy can have two forms:
(a) Polygyny and
(b) Polyandry.

Polygyny is a union in which a man is married to more than one woman who are alive. Polygyny can be further distinguished into two types:
(a) Sororal polygyny, if a man is married to two or more sisters and
(b) Non-sororal polygyny, if a man is married to two or more women who are not sisters.

Polyandry is the marriage of a woman to more than one man who are alive. Polyandry can be of two types:
(a) Fraternal polyandry, if a woman is married to two or more brothers and
(b) Non-fraternal polyandry, if a woman is married to two or more men who are not brothers.

2. Define marriage. Explain Monogamy, Polygamy and Polyandry.(’13)

Answer : Marriage is a socially sanctioned stable union of a man and woman for the satisfaction of the sexual need and for procreation. The institution of marriage defines the relationship between a man and a woman as husband and wife. Marriage is thus the beginning of family life and is also important in deciding the legitimacy of the children. There is also economic cooperation between the persons who are married, as also between them and their children.

Monogamy is a marriage of one man (husband) with one woman (wife) at a given time. It is the most accepted form of marriage and is found in all types of societies. In a society where monogamy prevails, a man or a woman can marry again only after the death of the spouse or the dissolution of the marriage through divorce.

Polygamy is a marriage in which either a woman has more than one husband or a man has more than one wife. Polygamy can have two forms:
(i) polygyny and
(ii) polyandry.

Polygyny is a union in which a man is married to more than one woman who are alive. Polygyny can be further distinguished into two types:
(a) sororal polygyny, if a man is married to two or more sisters, and
(b) non-sororal polygyny, if a man is married to two or more women who are not sisters.

Polyandry is the marriage of a woman to more than one man who are alive. Polyandry can be of two types:
(a) fraternal polyandry, if a woman is married to two or more brothers, and
(b) non-fraternal polyandry, if a woman is married to two or more men who are not brothers.

3. Discuss the important reasons for the emergence of the institution of marriage. (’07)

Answer : The important reasons for the emergence of the institution of marriage are:

(i) To regulate sexual relations and provide a socially accepted framework for procreation.
(ii) To establish a stable family structure for the upbringing and socialization of children.
(iii) To ensure economic cooperation and division of labor between partners, which contributes to the survival and well-being of the household.
(iv) To create alliances and strengthen social ties between families and communities.

4. Define family and explain the social functions of family. (’14)

Answer : The origin of the English word family is traced to the Roman word ‘famulus’ or to the Latin word ‘familia’, meaning a household including servants or workers and slaves along with other individuals having marriage or blood relations. The family is a basic or fundamental institution of society because it is the basic unit of society and is the most important social group. It is essential for procreation and socialisation. The family is a universal institution because it has existed throughout human history and is found in all societies.

Family is made up of individuals who have kinship relationships among themselves. The smallest family consists of the husband and wife with or without children, but a family can also include other persons like grandparents and other relatives and even adopted persons.

The social functions of the family are diverse in nature. Functions like (i) sex gratification, (ii) procreation and rearing, (iii) provision of a home, etc., are essential and extremely important. These functions are performed only by the family, and no other social agencies can perform them. Maclver and Page call them primary functions or essential functions of the family. The rest of the functions such as (iv) economic provision, (v) education, (vi) health care, (vii) social control, (viii) religious rituals, (ix) entertainment, etc., are of secondary importance. These functions are performed both by the family and other social agencies. These functions are called secondary functions or non-essential functions by Maclver and Page.

5. Define family. What are the social functions of family?

Answer : Family is a basic or fundamental institution of society because it is the basic unit of society and is the most important social group. It is essential for procreation and socialisation. The family is a universal institution because it has existed throughout human history and is found in all societies. Family is made up of individuals who have kinship relationships among themselves. The smallest family consists of the husband and wife with or without children. But a family can also include other persons like grandparents and other relatives and even adopted persons.

The social functions of family are diverse in nature. Functions like (i) sex gratification, (ii) procreation and rearing, (iii) provision of a home, etc., are essential and extremely important. These functions are performed only by the family and no other social agencies can perform them. Maclver and Page call them primary functions or essential functions of the family. The rest of the functions such as (iv) economic provision, (v) education, (vi) health care, (vii) social control, (viii) religious rituals, (ix) entertainment, etc., are of secondary importance. These functions are performed both by the family and other social agencies. These functions are called secondary functions or non-essential functions by Maclver and Page.

6. What is kinship? Explain the various types of kinship usages.

Answer : Kinship is a social relationship among individuals based on marriage, blood, or adoption. All such relatives are known as kin or kindred.

The various types of kinship usages found in human society are:

• Avoidance : It is a type of usage through which some restrictions are imposed on close interaction of certain kinsmen. Among the Hindus, as a result of such restrictions, certain relatives avoid talking to each other directly, avoid physical contact, and maintain minimum social interaction with each other.
• Joking Relationship : It is just the opposite of avoidance. The relatives are free to crack jokes at each other’s expense, tease each other, and make fun of each other under this form of behavior. A joking relationship is generally found between a man and his wife’s younger sister or between a woman and her husband’s younger brother.
• Teknonymy : When two kinsmen do not address each other directly rather through a third person or symbol, the usage is known as teknonymy. The practice is very common in rural India where women generally do not utter the names of their husbands or elderly in-laws. A woman refers to her husband as the father of her child, using the name of the child.
• Avunculate : It is the kind of behavior or usage which gives the maternal uncle an important status so far as his sister’s children are concerned. The maternal uncle is considered more important than even the father. The maternal uncle transfers his property to his nephew (i.e., the sister’s son). The nephew works for him rather than his own father. Sometimes the sister’s children are brought up in their maternal uncle’s family. Avunculate is common in matrilineal societies.
• Amitate : The kinship behavior which assigns a special role to one’s father’s sister is called amitate. Her role is similar to that of the maternal uncle under avunculate. The children show special respect to their father’s sister. Sometimes the children are brought up in her house and inherit her property. She is called female-father in societies practicing amitate. It is usually found in patrilineal societies.
• Couvade : It is kinship behavior in which a husband imitates the behavior of his wife during pregnancy and childbirth. The husband also leads the life of an invalid along with his wife whenever she gives birth to a child. He refrains from active life, goes on a sick diet, and observes certain taboos. This practice is common among the Khasi tribe of Meghalaya and the Toda tribe of Nilgiri Hills.

7. Define Kinship. Explain any three Kinship usages. (’13)

Answer : Kinship is a social relationship among individuals based on marriage, blood, or adoption. All such relatives are known as kin or kindred. The three Kinship usages are:

• Avoidance : It is a type of usage through which some restrictions are imposed on close interaction of certain kinsmen. Among the Hindus, as a result of such restrictions, certain relatives avoid talking to each other directly, avoid physical contact, and maintain minimum social interaction with each other. Some of the kins covered by such restrictions among the Hindus are parent-in-law and daughter-in-law, mother-in-law and son-in-law, husband’s elder brother and younger brother’s wife.
• Joking Relationship : It is just the opposite of avoidance. The relatives are free to crack jokes at each other’s expense, tease each other, and make fun of each other under this form of behavior. The relatives are expected not to take offense or to mind each other’s conduct. A joking relationship is generally found between a man and his wife’s younger sister or between a woman and her husband’s younger brother.
• Avunculate : It is the kind of behavior or usage which gives the maternal uncle an important status so far as his sister’s children are concerned. The maternal uncle is considered more important than even the father. The maternal uncle transfers his property to his nephew (i.e., the sister’s son). The nephew works for him rather than his own father. Sometimes the sister’s children are brought up in their maternal uncle’s family. Avunculate is common in matrilineal societies.

8. Write a note on the various Kinship usages found in human society. (’12)

Answer : Kinship usages or behaviour refer to definite and comparatively stable patterns of behaviour among members of a kin group. These patterns may be verbal or non-verbal. Some of the important kinship usages found in human society are as follows:

• Avoidance : This usage imposes restrictions on close interaction between certain kinsmen. For example, among Hindus, some relatives avoid talking directly, physical contact, and maintain minimal social interaction. Examples include parent-in-law and daughter-in-law, mother-in-law and son-in-law, and husband’s elder brother and younger brother’s wife.
• Joking Relationship : This is the opposite of avoidance. Relatives are free to crack jokes, tease, and make fun of each other without causing offence. It is commonly found between a man and his wife’s younger sister or between a woman and her husband’s younger brother.
• Teknonymy : In this usage, two kinsmen do not address each other directly but through a third person or symbol. For instance, women in rural India often refer to their husbands as the father of their child instead of using their names.
• Avunculate : This usage assigns an important status to the maternal uncle regarding his sister’s children. The maternal uncle is considered more significant than the father in some societies. He may transfer property to his nephew (sister’s son), and the nephew works for him rather than his own father. Sometimes, the sister’s children are brought up in the maternal uncle’s family. Avunculate is common in matrilineal societies.
• Amitate : This usage gives a special role to the father’s sister, similar to the maternal uncle’s role under avunculate. Children show respect to their father’s sister, and sometimes they inherit her property or are brought up in her house. She is referred to as the “female-father” in societies practicing amitate, which is usually found in patrilineal societies.
• Couvade : This is a kinship behaviour where a husband imitates his wife’s behaviour during pregnancy and childbirth. The husband leads the life of an invalid along with his wife during childbirth, refraining from active life, following dietary restrictions, and observing certain taboos. This practice is common among tribes like the Khasi of Meghalaya and the Toda of Nilgiri Hills.

9. What are the various bases of classification of kinship terms? Discuss in detail.

Answer : The various bases of classification of kinship terms are as follows:

A) On the basis of linguistic structure, kinship terms have been classified into three types:

• Elementary Term: These are terms that cannot be further reduced or broken down into simpler words. Examples include father, mother, brother, sister, nephew, and niece. In Hindi, examples are mata, pita, bhai, and bahen.
• Derivative Term: These are coined by joining suffixes or prefixes to the elementary kinship terms. Examples include grandfather, sister-in-law, step-son, and great-grandfather.
• Descriptive Term: These are formed by combining two or more elementary terms. Examples include wife’s sister, brother’s wife, son’s wife, and daughter’s husband. In Hindi, examples are mausera bhai (mother’s brother’s son) and chaceri bahen (father’s brother’s daughter).

B) On the basis of mode of use, kinship terms have been classified into two types:

• Term of Address: These are used for addressing kins or relatives directly. Examples include papa, daddy, maa, mummy, didi, and bhaiya. In Tamil, terms of address are annan (elder brother), tambi (younger brother), and akka (elder sister).
• Term of Reference: These are used for indirectly referring to a person. Examples include father, mother, brother, and sister. In Hindi, examples are pita, maa, bhai, and bahen. In Tamil, examples are mama maga/magan (maternal uncle’s daughter/son) and attai magal/magan (father’s sister’s daughter/son).

C) On the basis of range of application, kinship terms have been classified into two types:

• Denotative/Isolative/Descriptive Term: This term applies to only one particular kin category. For example, the term ‘father’ and ‘mother’ is applied to our parents only and to no one else.
• Classificatory Term: This term applies to persons of two or more kinship categories. For example, the term ‘cousin’ is used to refer to father’s brother’s son, father’s sister’s son, mother’s brother’s son, and mother’s sister’s son. Similarly, the term ‘uncle’ refers to mother’s brother, father’s brother, mother’s sister’s husband, and father’s sister’s husband.

10. Write the difference between traditional and modern agrarian economy. (’09)

Answer : Traditional agrarian economy was characterized by agricultural activities that were primarily aimed at consumption, with low agricultural yield often resulting in food scarcity. The work was mainly manual, relying on human and animal power, and agriculture depended heavily on weather conditions. There was significant inequality in land distribution, with most people either landless or owning only small plots of land.

In contrast, modern agrarian economy has seen substantial changes due to advancements in science and technology. The use of machinery and scientific techniques has greatly improved production levels. Agriculture has taken on a capitalist nature, where food and cash crops are grown not just for personal consumption but also for sale in the market. In India, the agrarian economy has experienced significant transformations through land reforms and the Green Revolution, distinguishing it from the traditional agrarian setup.

11. What is religion? Discuss.

Answer : Religion is a universal reality that has existed throughout the history of human society and continues to exist in all societies. It is an important aspect of human social life and shapes human behavior in various ways. Religion is defined as a system of beliefs in one or more supernatural beings, along with various ritual practices that express these beliefs.

Religion has different dimensions: (a) systems of beliefs about supernatural beings; (b) practices which express beliefs; (c) relationships with others who accept the same beliefs and practices; (d) concepts of heaven and hell.

Religion gets its meaning when understood from the nature of the supernatural beings to which it is related. The most common forms of beliefs in supernatural beings are: (a) animism, (b) polytheism, and (c) monotheism. Animism is the belief in the soul or spirit, where all objects, animals, and human beings are inhabited by spirits or souls. Polytheism is the belief in many gods and/or goddesses, such as in Hinduism. Monotheism is the belief in only one God, as seen in Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.

Religion is a social reality, not merely a personal affair. As a social reality, religion has the following characteristics:

• Religion is a system of beliefs and practices shared by the members of a community.
• The aim of religious beliefs and practices is to come to terms with supernatural powers and imply a sense of dependence on them.
• Religion is concerned with the metaphysical world and is based on non-empirical beliefs, differing from science which deals with the physical world and is based on empirical truths.
• Religion is a universal social reality found in all societies in some form or another.
• Religion is related to other dimensions of social existence, such as economic, political, educational, and family structures.
• Religion performs the basic function of uniting a community, forming a religious community or ‘church’ with its own institutions.

Religion is an important social reality found in all societies and is essentially related to other dimensions of society like the family, economy, politics, and education.

12. Discuss the differences between science and religion. (’12)

Answer : The differences between science and religion are as follows:

• Religion is concerned with the metaphysical world and is based on non-empirical beliefs, whereas science deals with the physical world and is based on empirical truths.
• Religion is related to beliefs in supernatural beings and practices expressing those beliefs, while science focuses on observable, measurable, and testable phenomena.
• Religion aims to come to terms with supernatural powers and implies a sense of dependence on them, whereas science seeks to understand and explain natural phenomena through systematic investigation.
• Religion differs from science in that it is not empirically verifiable, while science relies on experimentation and evidence.

13. How is magic different from religion? (’13)

Answer : Magic differs from religion in that religion aims to come to terms with supernatural powers and implies a sense of dependence on them, whereas magic aims at manipulating the supernatural powers.

14. What are the two systems of education? Mention the three important components of formal education.

Answer : The two systems of education are:

(i) Formal education
(ii) Informal education

The three important components of formal education are:

(a) An organized structure
(b) A definite and properly spelt out content of education
(c) Definite rules and regulations

Problem Solving

1. Make a list of kinship terms used in your family for father, brother, father’s brother, his wife, his sons and daughters, and for father’s sister, her husband and her sons and daughters. Similarly make a list of terms for mother, her brother, his wife and his sons and daughters, as also for mother’s sister, her husband, and her sons and daughter. Are these kinship terms classificatory or descriptive?

Answer: As someone from Bengali community, here is the list of kinship terms used in my family:

Father’s side:

• Father: Baba
• Brother (father’s): Dada (if elder), Bhai (if same age or younger)
• Father’s brother: Kaka, Jethu (if elder)
• Father’s brother’s wife: Kaki, Jethima (if elder)
• Father’s brother’s son: Bhai, Dada (if elder), Khurtuto Bhai
• Father’s brother’s daughter: Bon, Didi (if elder), Khurtuto Bon
• Father’s sister: Pishi, Pishima
• Father’s sister’s husband: Pishe, Pishemoshai
• Father’s sister’s son: Bhai, Dada (if elder), Pistuto Bhai
• Father’s sister’s daughter: Bon, Didi (if elder), Pistuto Bon

Mother’s side:

• Mother: Ma
• Mother’s brother: Mama
• Mother’s brother’s wife: Mami, Mamima
• Mother’s brother’s son: Bhai, Dada (if elder), Mamatuto Bhai
• Mother’s brother’s daughter: Bon, Didi (if elder), Mamatuto Bon
• Mother’s sister: Mashi, Mashima
• Mother’s sister’s husband: Mesho, Meshomoshai
• Mother’s sister’s son: Bhai, Dada (if elder), Mastuto Bhai
• Mother’s sister’s daughter: Bon, Didi (if elder), Mastuto Bon

These kinship terms are mostly classificatory, as many of the terms (e.g. bhāi, bon) are applied to more than one relationship category, such as both own and cousin siblings. However, some are descriptive, like Baba and Mā, which refer only to one’s biological parents.

2. In Nagaland, a large number of people are employed in agriculture and many more are in Government services and some are in small industries. In this context, how do you describe the economy of Nagaland – as agricultural, industrial or mixed? Give reasons.

Answer: The economy of Nagaland can be described as a mixed economy. This is because a large number of people are engaged in agriculture, which shows the importance of the primary sector. At the same time, many are employed in Government services, which is part of the tertiary sector, and some are involved in small industries, which belong to the secondary sector. The presence of all three sectors—agriculture, industry and services—indicates a mixed economy.

Think and Answer

1. At present nuclear families are becoming common especially in our towns. What are the reasons?

Answer: Nuclear families are becoming common in towns due to various reasons. Urbanisation has led to people moving away from their villages in search of jobs and education, resulting in smaller family units. High cost of living in towns also makes it difficult for large families to live together. Additionally, changing lifestyles and the desire for independence have encouraged young couples to live separately from their extended families. These factors have contributed to the rise of nuclear families in towns.

2. Traditional Naga religion is described as animism. In what way is it different from monotheism like Christianity? Explain from your experience.

Answer: Traditional Naga religion, described as animism, involves the belief that spirits dwell in natural objects like trees, rivers, animals and mountains. People performed rituals to honour or appease these spirits, believing they could influence daily life. Christianity, although Trinitarian in form—believing in God the Father, Son and Holy Spirit—is monotheistic because all three are understood as one God. Unlike animism, Christianity focuses on the worship of one supreme God and follows teachings based on the Bible. From experience, traditional animism is centred on multiple spiritual forces in nature, while Christianity teaches faith in one God who is above nature.