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The Sangam Age: ICSE Class 9 Total History solutions
Get notes, summary, questions and answers, MCQs, extras, and PDFs of Chapter 5 “The Sangam Age” which is part of ICSE Class 9 History (Total History). However, the notes should only be treated as references and changes should be made according to the needs of the students.
Summary
The chapter discusses the Sangam Age, a significant period in South Indian history, particularly in Tamil Nadu. This era is marked by the creation of a large body of Tamil literature, composed by poets and scholars during three literary assemblies known as Sangams. These gatherings took place between the 1st century BC and the 2nd century AD, primarily in the Pandya kingdom, with Madurai as the main centre.
The Sangam literature provides valuable insights into the society, economy, and political landscape of the time. The main sources of information about this period are the “Tirukkural,” a collection of ethical teachings by the poet Tiruvalluvar, and megalithic structures used as burial sites or memorials. The Sangam literature, although not entirely preserved, offers a glimpse into the life and values of the people through poems, epics, and other literary works.
The three major Tamil kingdoms during this period were the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. Each kingdom had its distinct characteristics and symbols. The Cheras, ruling over present-day Kerala, were known for their bow and arrow emblem. Their most famous ruler, Senguttuvan, is remembered for his military expeditions and the worship of Kannagi, a symbol of chastity. The Cholas, whose kingdom was rich in water resources due to the Kaveri River, were led by notable kings like Karikalan, who was known for his military conquests and development of infrastructure. The Pandyas, ruling over Madurai, were patrons of Tamil literature and arts, with their symbol being a fish.
Society during the Sangam Age was divided into different classes, with some early signs of caste distinctions. However, the larger society remained relatively egalitarian compared to later periods. Agriculture was the main occupation, with rice as the staple crop. The economy was self-sufficient, with trade, both internal and external, playing a crucial role. The period saw extensive trade with foreign countries, particularly with the Roman Empire, as evidenced by the discovery of Roman coins in Tamil Nadu.
The position of women in Sangam society varied, with some enjoying freedom and education, as reflected by the presence of women poets. However, the status of women was not equal to that of men, with different roles assigned based on societal norms. The chapter also highlights the importance of local chieftains, known as Velirs, who played a significant role in supporting poets and maintaining political stability in their regions.
Textbook (Total History) solutions
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. The word ‘Sangam’, literally means:
(a) Association
(b) Involvement
(c) Opposite
(d) Kingdom
Answer: (a) Association
2. Tirukkural is a collection of Tamil couplets organised into chapters.
(a) 134
(b) 133
(c) 113
(d) 143
Answer: (b) 133
3. What are the box-like structures erected with the stone slabs, resting on each other without any mortar called?
(a) Megaliths
(b) Tirukkural
(c) Couplets
(d) Malaiyar
Answer: (a) Megaliths
4. The Tirukkural had three sections, namely
(a) Aram, Porul and Inbam
(b) Vanavar, Malaiyar and Udiyan
(c) Tolkappiyam, Tirukkural and Tiruvalluvar
(d) None of the above.
Answer: (a) Aram, Porul and Inbam
5. How are Megalithis or memorial stones a source of information?
(a) Information about religious beliefs
(b) Information about tools and implements
(c) Information about life of people
(d) All of the above.
Answer: (d) All of the above.
6. Which of the following is not a sobriquet for Chera kings?
(a) Vanavar
(b) Villavar
(c) Malaiyar
(d) Udiyan
Answer: (d) Udiyan
7. Which of the following is incorrect?
(a) Chera Kingdom: bow and arrow
(b) Chola Kingdom: Tiger
(c) Pandya kingdom: crocodile
(d) Pandya kingdom: fish
Answer: (c) Pandya kingdom: crocodile
8. The names referring to the Sangam Chola kingdom indicate
(a) Powerful kings
(c) Overseas trade
(b) Rich water resources
(d) All of the above.
Answer: (b) Rich water resources
9. Karikalan was the most popular Sangam Chola ruler because
(a) he was a great warrior and diplomat
(b) he fortified his capital making it a trade-centre
(c) he encouraged growth of agriculture and commerce
(d) All of the above.
Answer: (d) All of the above.
10. The Velirs extended patronage to poets who acted as
(a) administrative agents
(c) patrons of other arts
(b) diplomats and caretakers
(d) All of the above.
Answer: (d) All of the above.
11. Referring to the Sangam society which of the following is incorrect?
(a) Uzhavar: ordinary ploughmen
(c) Adimai: priests
(b) Vellalars: landed aristocrats
(d) Kadasiyar: landless labourers
Answer: (c) Adimai: priests
Select the correct relationship
1. (A) Tamil literature comprises five epics, besides the Tirukkural.
(B) Megaliths acted as burial sites or commemorative memorials.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: (D) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Explanation: Statement (A) refers to Tamil literature, which includes five epics, highlighting its cultural and literary heritage. Statement (B) refers to Megaliths, which are ancient structures used as burial sites or memorials. These two statements are about entirely different subjects—one is about literature, and the other is about archaeological structures. Hence, they are independent of each other.
2. (A) The capital of the Cheras was Vanji and their chief port was Thondi.
(B) Their symbol on the flag was tiger.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: (C) (A) is true but (B) is false.
Explanation: Statement (A) correctly identifies Vanji as the capital and Thondi as the chief port of the Chera kingdom. However, Statement (B) is incorrect because the symbol on the Chera flag was a bow and arrow, not a tiger. The tiger was the symbol of the Chola kingdom, not the Cheras.
3. (A) The Chola Kingdom was rich in water resources.
(B) The river Kaveri flowed through the Chola Kingdom.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: (B) (B) is the reason for (A).
Explanation: The Chola Kingdom was indeed rich in water resources, and this abundance was largely due to the presence of the river Kaveri, which flowed through the kingdom. The river’s presence provided fertile soil and water for agriculture, which contributed to the wealth and prosperity of the Chola Kingdom, making (B) the reason for (A).
4. (A) The most popular ruler of the Sangam Cholas was Karikalan, who was a great warrior.
(B) He not only defeated the Cheras and the Pandya Kings but also a confederacy of nine princes.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: (B) (B) is the reason for (A).
Explanation: Karikalan’s reputation as a great warrior is directly supported by his military achievements, including his victories over the Cheras, the Pandya Kings, and a confederacy of nine princes. These victories enhanced his fame and solidified his status as one of the most renowned rulers of the Sangam Cholas, making (B) the reason for (A).
5. (A) The local chieftains who ruled in different parts of Tamil Nadu were called Velirs.
(B) They helped to resolve the disputes among the rulers.
(a) (B) contradicts (A)
(b) (B) is the reason for (A)
(c) (A) is true but (B) is false
(d) (A) and (B) are independent of each other.
Answer: (B) (B) is the reason for (A).
Explanation: The Velirs were indeed local chieftains in Tamil Nadu, and one of their significant roles was to mediate and resolve disputes among the rulers. Their involvement in diplomatic activities among the various rulers of the time explains their importance and the role they played in the political landscape, making (B) the reason for (A).
Short Answer Questions
1. Who was the author of Tirukkural? Name the three sections into which the chapters of Tirukkural are categorised.
Answer: Tiruvalluvar was the author of Tirukkural. The three sections into which the chapters of Tirukkural are categorised are: (a) Aram (righteousness); (b) Porul (wealth); and (c) Inbam or Kamam (pleasure).
2. What are Megaliths? Why are they so called?
Answer: Megaliths are box-like structures erected with the stone slabs, resting on each other without any mortar. Sometimes there was an opening cut into one of the sides. These acted either as burial sites or commemorative memorials. They are called megaliths because they are large stones.
3. Name any four divisions (tinais) mentioned in the Sangam literature.
Answer: The four divisions (tinais) mentioned in the Sangam literature are: (a) hilly backwoods (kurinji), (b) parched zones (palai), (c) pastoral tract (mullai), and (d) wet land (marutam).
4. Who were the Vellalars during the Sangam Age?
Answer: The Vellalars were landed aristocrats, who cultivated the wetlands during the Sangam Age. They had close associations and held high positions of office with the three main dynasties, Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. They also carried out trade.
5. Name the main crops grown during the Sangam Period.
Answer: The main crops grown during the Sangam Period were rice, cotton, ragi, sugarcane, pepper, ginger, cardamom, turmeric, cinnamon, and different varieties of fruits.
6. Name one centre of cotton trade and the products exported to foreign countries during the Sangam Age.
Answer: Uraiyur was one centre of cotton trade during the Sangam Age. The products exported to foreign countries during the Sangam Age included pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric, ivory products, pearls, and precious stones.
7. Name the social divisions of this period and the occupations associated with each one of them.
Answer: The social divisions of this period and the occupations associated with each one of them are:
| Social Division | Occupation |
|---|---|
| Brahmanas | Priests, astrologers, judicial officers |
| Kings | Rulers |
| Traders | Merchants |
| Farmers | Cultivators |
| Uzhavar | Ordinary ploughmen |
| Kadasiyar | Landless labourers |
| Adimai | Slaves |
| Goldsmiths | Making ornaments |
| Blacksmiths | Making tools and weapons |
| Potters | Making pottery |
Structured Questions
1. With reference to the picture given alongside, answer the following:
(a) Identify the lady whose statue this picture is. Why was the lady revered?
Answer: The lady in the statue is Kannagi. She was revered because she is considered the epitome of chastity and devotion to her husband. She is worshipped as the ideal wife who took revenge on the Pandya king for wrongly punishing her husband.
(b) What was the position of women during the Sangam Age?
Answer: The status of women in the Sangam society was not equal to that of men. Women had certain freedoms, such as the freedom of movement and the opportunity for education, as evidenced by the number of women poets from the period. However, the society also had a significant number of courtesans and female ascetics, indicating a diverse range of roles for women.
(c) What does the Tolkappiyam say about ways of living of the people during the Sangam age?
Answer: The Tolkappiyam mentions that the society was divided into different social classes, such as Brahmanas, kings, traders, and farmers. It also describes various modes of human adaptation in different geographical regions, classified into five tinais or divisions: hilly backwoods (kurinji), parched zones (palai), pastoral tracts (mullai), wet land (marutam), and littoral land (neital). Each region had its distinct way of life, influenced by its geography.
2. With reference to the Sangam Age, answer the following questions:
(a) State why the Sangam Age is so called.
Answer: The Sangam Age is so called because it refers to the period when Tamil literature was composed by scholars and poets in three successive literary gatherings known as Sangams. These Sangams were assemblies of poets and scholars held in Madurai under the patronage of the Pandya kings.
(b) Name the three kingdoms along with their capitals that existed during the Sangam Age.
Answer: The three kingdoms that existed during the Sangam Age were:
- The Chera Kingdom, with its capital at Vanji.
- The Chola Kingdom, with its capital at Uraiyur.
- The Pandya Kingdom, with its capital at Madurai.
(c) Describe the achievements of Chera ruler, Senguttuvan; and Chola ruler, Karikalan.
Answer: Senguttuvan: Chera ruler Senguttuvan was renowned for bringing a stone from the Himalayas to build a temple dedicated to Kannagi. He led an expedition to the Himalayas, defeated his enemies, and hoisted the Chera flag there. He is credited with initiating the Pattini cult, the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife.
Karikalan: Chola ruler Karikalan was a great warrior who defeated the Chera and Pandya kings at the battle of Venni. He also defeated a confederacy of nine princes. Karikalan is known for his contributions to agriculture and commerce, most notably for constructing the Kallanai dam across the river Kaveri, which facilitated irrigation. He also fortified the port city of Kaveripoompattinam, making it a thriving trade centre.
Thinking Skills
1. How was the society in the Sangam Age different from that in the Vedic Age?
Answer: Society in the Sangam Age was primarily based on the distinction between high born and low born, differentiating the Brahmanas and their patrons from the common people. On the other hand, society in the Vedic Age was characterized by the varna system, which divided people into four main classes—Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras—each with distinct roles and responsibilities.
2. Imagine you are transported in the Sangam Age by a time-machine. Describe the position of women, as seen by you.
Answer: The status of women in the Sangam society was not equal to that of men. Women were generally expected to be dutiful housewives, looking after their husbands and children. However, there were also female ascetics belonging to Buddhist or Jain traditions. Although women had certain freedoms and there were a number of women poets, they still held a secondary position in society compared to men.
3. Find out structures similar to megaliths or commemorative memorials in other civilisations of the world. List the similarities and dissimilarities between the megaliths and these structures.
Answer: Structures similar to megaliths can be found in various civilizations such as the Stonehenge in England, the Pyramids in Egypt, and the Dolmens in Europe. Similarities include their function as burial sites or commemorative monuments and their construction using large stones. Dissimilarities include the more elaborate construction techniques and purposes in civilizations like Egypt, where the pyramids were not only tombs but also symbols of power and religious significance, whereas megaliths were simpler and primarily used for burial or commemoration.
4. Read the plot of the two epics Sillapadikaram and Manimekalai. Compare and contrast the women characters in these two epics with those of Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Answer: The women characters in the epics Sillapadikaram and Manimekalai are portrayed with strong moral virtues and are central to the plot. Kannagi, in Sillapadikaram, is depicted as a chaste and devoted wife who seeks justice for her wronged husband. Manimekalai is portrayed as a spiritual and compassionate woman who renounces worldly life for a higher purpose. In contrast, the women characters in the Ramayana and Mahabharata, such as Sita and Draupadi, are also portrayed with strength and virtue but within a different cultural and narrative framework. Sita is the ideal wife, embodying loyalty and sacrifice, while Draupadi is portrayed as a strong and assertive character who challenges the norms of her time. The women in the Sangam epics are more focused on personal virtue and spiritual goals, whereas in the Ramayana and Mahabharata, their roles are deeply intertwined with the dharma and politics of the time.
Extra/additional MCQs
1. During which period did the Sangam gatherings of poets and bards take place?
A. Between first century BC and second century AD
B. Between first century AD and third century AD
C. Between second century BC and first century AD
D. Between third century BC and second century BC
Answer: A. Between first century BC and second century AD
Q. Which city is associated with the composition and compilation of Sangam literature?
A. Kanchipuram
B. Thanjavur
C. Madurai
D. Tiruchirappalli
Answer: C. Madurai
Q. What is the oldest surviving book of Tamil grammar produced during the second Sangam?
A. Tirukkural
B. Silappadikaram
C. Tolkappiyam
D. Manimekalai
Answer: C. Tolkappiyam
Q. Which Tamil poet and philosopher wrote the celebrated work Tirukkural?
A. Tolkappiar
B. Tiruvalluvar
C. Illango Vadigal
D. Senguttuvan
Answer: B. Tiruvalluvar
Q. How many chapters does the Tirukkural comprise?
A. 120
B. 130
C. 133
D. 140
Answer: C. 133
Q. What does the Tamil word ‘muvendar’ refer to in Sangam literature?
A. Three poets
B. Three chiefs
C. Three cities
D. Three temples
Answer: B. Three chiefs
Q. Which kingdom’s territory mostly comprised the present state of Kerala during the Sangam Age?
A. Chola
B. Pandya
C. Chera
D. Pallava
Answer: C. Chera
Q. What was the symbol on the flag of the Chera kingdom during the Sangam Age?
A. Tiger
B. Fish
C. Bow and arrow
D. Elephant
Answer: C. Bow and arrow
Q. Which Chera king started the Pattini cult, worshipping Kannagi as the ideal wife?
A. Peruncheral Irumporai
B. Udiyan Cheralathan
C. Kanaikkal Irumporai
D. Cheran Senguttuvan
Answer: D. Cheran Senguttuvan
Q. What was the chief port of the Chera kingdom during the Sangam Age?
A. Puhar
B. Muziris
C. Thondi
D. Korkai
Answer: C. Thondi
Q. What does the presence of tridents in megalithic graves indicate?
A. Worship of Vishnu
B. Worship of Shiva
C. Worship of Indra
D. Worship of Brahma
Answer: B. Worship of Shiva
Q. Which river made the soil of the Chola kingdom fertile?
A. Ganga
B. Godavari
C. Kaveri
D. Krishna
Answer: C. Kaveri
Q. What was the capital of the Sangam Cholas?
A. Korkai
B. Madurai
C. Uraiyur
D. Tiruchirappalli
Answer: C. Uraiyur
Q. Which Chola king was famous for building the Kallanai dam?
A. Rajendra Chola
B. Rajaraja Chola
C. Karikalan
D. Aditya Chola
Answer: C. Karikalan
Q. The symbol of the Sangam Cholas was a:
A. Lion
B. Fish
C. Tiger
D. Elephant
Answer: C. Tiger
Q. The chief port of the Sangam Cholas was:
A. Korkai
B. Puhar
C. Naura
D. Muziris
Answer: B. Puhar
Q. Which Pandya king is mentioned for mistakenly giving a death sentence to Kovalan, the hero of Silappadikaram?
A. Thalaiyalanganathu Nedunchezhiyan
B. Ariyappadaikadantha Neduncheliyan
C. Mudhukudumi Peruvazhthi
D. Valudhi
Answer: B. Ariyappadaikadantha Neduncheliyan
Q. What was the symbol of the Pandya kingdom?
A. Lion
B. Fish
C. Bow
D. Elephant
Answer: B. Fish
Q. The capital of the Pandya kingdom during the Sangam Age was:
A. Thanjavur
B. Madurai
C. Uraiyur
D. Kanchipuram
Answer: B. Madurai
Q. The Sangam literature refers to the division of land into how many tinais?
A. Three
B. Four
C. Five
D. Six
Answer: C. Five
Q. Which crop was the main agricultural product during the Sangam Age?
A. Cotton
B. Ragi
C. Rice
D. Sugarcane
Answer: C. Rice
Q. What was the main form of exchange in rural areas during the Sangam Age?
A. Coins
B. Barter
C. Gold
D. Land
Answer: B. Barter
Q. Which occupation was second most important after agriculture during the Sangam Age?
A. Fishing
B. Weaving
C. Pottery
D. Metalworking
Answer: B. Weaving
Q. The Periplus of the Red Sea mentions which Chola capital as an important center of trade?
A. Kaveripoompattinam
B. Madurai
C. Uraiyur
D. Thanjavur
Answer: C. Uraiyur
Q. Which social class in the Sangam Age was primarily involved in plough agriculture?
A. Hunters
B. Gatherers
C. Pastoralists
D. Wetland inhabitants
Answer: D. Wetland inhabitants
Q. Which Sangam poet played the role of a diplomat in the court of Adhiyaman?
A. Avvaiyar
B. Kapilar
C. Mangudi Maruthanar
D. Pari
Answer: A. Avvaiyar
Q. Which river made the soil of the Chola kingdom fertile?
A. Ganga
B. Godavari
C. Kaveri
D. Krishna
Answer: C. Kaveri
Q. What was the capital of the Sangam Cholas?
A. Korkai
B. Madurai
C. Uraiyur
D. Tiruchirappalli
Answer: C. Uraiyur
Q. Which Chola king was famous for building the Kallanai dam?
A. Rajendra Chola
B. Rajaraja Chola
C. Karikalan
D. Aditya Chola
Answer: C. Karikalan
Q. The symbol of the Sangam Cholas was a:
A. Lion
B. Fish
C. Tiger
D. Elephant
Answer: C. Tiger
Q. The chief port of the Sangam Cholas was:
A. Korkai
B. Puhar
C. Naura
D. Muziris
Answer: B. Puhar
Q. Which Pandya king is mentioned for mistakenly giving a death sentence to Kovalan, the hero of Silappadikaram?
A. Thalaiyalanganathu Nedunchezhiyan
B. Ariyappadaikadantha Neduncheliyan
C. Mudhukudumi Peruvazhthi
D. Valudhi
Answer: B. Ariyappadaikadantha Neduncheliyan
Q. What was the symbol of the Pandya kingdom?
A. Lion
B. Fish
C. Bow
D. Elephant
Answer: B. Fish
Q. The capital of the Pandya kingdom during the Sangam Age was:
A. Thanjavur
B. Madurai
C. Uraiyur
D. Kanchipuram
Answer: B. Madurai
Q. The Sangam literature refers to the division of land into how many tinais?
A. Three
B. Four
C. Five
D. Six
Answer: C. Five
Q. Which crop was the main agricultural product during the Sangam Age?
A. Cotton
B. Ragi
C. Rice
D. Sugarcane
Answer: C. Rice
Q. What was the main form of exchange in rural areas during the Sangam Age?
A. Coins
B. Barter
C. Gold
D. Land
Answer: B. Barter
Q. Which occupation was second most important after agriculture during the Sangam Age?
A. Fishing
B. Weaving
C. Pottery
D. Metalworking
Answer: B. Weaving
Q. The Periplus of the Red Sea mentions which Chola capital as an important center of trade?
A. Kaveripoompattinam
B. Madurai
C. Uraiyur
D. Thanjavur
Answer: C. Uraiyur
Q. Which social class in the Sangam Age was primarily involved in plough agriculture?
A. Hunters
B. Gatherers
C. Pastoralists
D. Wetland inhabitants
Answer: D. Wetland inhabitants
26. Which Sangam poet played the role of a diplomat in the court of Adhiyaman?
A. Avvaiyar
B. Kapilar
C. Mangudi Maruthanar
D. Pari
Answer: A. Avvaiyar
Extra/additional questions and answers
1. What does the word ‘Sangam’ mean?
Answer: Assembly or association.
Q. In which city were the Sangam assemblies held?
Answer: Madurai.
Q. Which Sangam produced the oldest book of Tamil grammar?
Answer: The second Sangam.
Q. Who wrote the Tamil epic Silappadikaram?
Answer: Illango Vadigal.
Q. What was the symbol on the Chera flag?
Answer: Bow and arrow.
Q. What type of structures were megaliths?
Answer: Box-like structures made of stone slabs.
Q. What is the most celebrated work of the Sangam literature?
Answer: Tirukkural.
Q. What was the capital of the Sangam Cheras?
Answer: Vanji.
Q. Which historian identified the Sangam Age with the last phase of the megalithic culture?
Answer: Champakalakshmi.
Q. Which king started the Pattini cult?
Answer: Cheran Senguttuvan.
Q. What were the present districts that comprised the kingdom of the Sangam Cholas?
Answer: Thanjavur and Tiruchirappalli districts.
Q. What were the Chola kings referred to in the Sangam literature?
Answer: Killi, Valavan, Senni, and Cholan.
Q. What was the second capital of the Sangam Cholas?
Answer: Kaveripoompattinam.
Q. Who was the most popular Sangam Chola king?
Answer: Karikalan.
Q. What was the symbol of the Pandya kingdom?
Answer: Fish.
Q. What was the capital of the Pandya kingdom during the Sangam Age?
Answer: Madurai.
Q. What were the traditional castes mentioned in the Tolkappiyam?
Answer: Brahmanas, kings, traders, and farmers.
Q. What were the chief articles of food during the Sangam Age?
Answer: Grain, meat, and fish.
Q. What were the popular modes of entertainment during the Sangam Age?
Answer: Music, dance, cock-fighting, and goat-fighting.
Q. What were the main crops grown during the Sangam Age?
Answer: Rice, cotton, ragi, sugarcane, and spices.
Q. What was the main medium of exchange in rural areas during the Sangam Age?
Answer: Paddy.
Q. What were the most important ports mentioned in the Periplus of the Red Sea?
Answer: Naura, Tyndis, and Muziris.
Q. What was the significance of the third Sangam, and what did it contribute to Tamil literature?
Answer: The third Sangam, attended by many poets, produced vast amounts of literature, though only a fraction of it has survived. This surviving portion constitutes the extant body of Sangam literature, which is considered a crucial part of Tamil heritage.
Q. Describe the three sections of the Tirukkural and what they discuss.
Answer: The Tirukkural is divided into three sections: Aram (righteousness), Porul (wealth), and Inbam or Kamam (pleasure). Aram and Inbam focus on ethical living in private life, while Porul deals with public affairs. Together, these sections offer guidance on leading a virtuous life.
Q. Who was Cheran Senguttuvan and what was his contribution to Tamil culture?
Answer: Cheran Senguttuvan was a famous king of the Sangam Cheras known for starting the Pattini cult, the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife. He brought a stone from the Himalayas to carve a statue of Kannagi and built a temple for her, symbolizing his devotion and cultural contribution.
Q. What insights do megaliths provide about the life of people during the Sangam Age?
Answer: Megaliths provide insights into burial practices, social structure, and the lifestyle of the Sangam Age. They often contained skeletons and grave goods such as pottery and iron objects, indicating the daily life, tools, and religious beliefs of the people. The presence of tridents in graves suggests a belief in Lord Shiva.
Q. What does the Sangam literature reveal about the names of the Chola kingdom and their significance?
Answer: The Sangam literature refers to the Chola kingdom by various names such as Chonadu, Kaveri Nadu, Kaveri Soozh Nadu, Neer Nadu, and Punal Nadu, which indicate the rich water resources of the Chola country. These names emphasize the fertility and agricultural prosperity brought about by the river Kaveri that flowed through the kingdom, making its soil fertile and supporting the livelihoods of its inhabitants.
Q. How did Karikalan contribute to the development of his kingdom?
Answer: Karikalan was a notable ruler of the Sangam Cholas who significantly contributed to the development of his kingdom. He encouraged the growth of agriculture and commerce, built the Kallanai dam across the river Kaveri for irrigation, and fortified the port-city Kaveripoompattinam, making it a flourishing center of trade. His patronage extended to Tamil poets, showcasing his support for cultural and economic advancements in his reign.
Q. Who were the Velirs, and what role did they play during the Sangam Age?
Answer: The Velirs were local chieftains who ruled different parts of Tamil Nadu during the Sangam Age. They played a significant role in the political, social, and cultural domains of the time. The Velirs were known for their patronage of Tamil poets and for their generosity, which earned them the title of Seven Patrons or Kadaiyelu Vallalgal. They also helped resolve disputes between rulers, and their contributions were vital to the functioning of society during the Sangam Age.
Q. What were the social classes mentioned in the Tolkappiyam, and how did they influence the society during the Sangam Age?
Answer: The Tolkappiyam, an ancient Tamil text, mentions four social classes: Brahmanas, kings, traders, and farmers. These classes were primarily based on profession, with Brahmanas serving as priests and scholars, kings as rulers, traders as merchants, and farmers as agricultural workers. The division of society into these classes reflects the influence of Sanskritic social ideals and highlights the coexistence of caste and tribal arrangements in Tamil society during the Sangam Age.
Q. What were the main features of trade during the Sangam Age?
Answer: Trade during the Sangam Age was well-organized and extensive, with both internal and foreign trade flourishing. Internally, trade was often conducted through barter, with paddy being the primary medium of exchange. The Tamil land produced commodities like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric, and ivory products that were in high demand in foreign markets. The port cities, such as Puhar, Saliyur, and Bandar, were major centers for trade, attracting merchants from various regions. The Periplus of the Red Sea provides details about the trade routes and important ports on the west coast of India.
Q. What do the megalithic burial practices tell us about the religious beliefs and social organization of the Sangam Age people?
Answer: Megalithic burial practices during the Sangam Age provide significant insights into the religious beliefs and social organization of the time. The presence of tridents in graves suggests a strong faith in Lord Shiva, indicating the early prevalence of Shaivism. The burial of multiple skeletons in the same megalith points to a family-based social structure, where members of the same family were buried together. The inclusion of grave goods like pottery and iron objects, which were used in daily life, suggests a belief in an afterlife where these items would be needed. This practice reflects the social and economic conditions of the period, where the possession of certain goods could indicate the status of the deceased.
Q. Discuss the significance of the river Kaveri in the Chola kingdom and its impact on the region’s agriculture and economy.
Answer: The river Kaveri played a crucial role in the prosperity of the Chola kingdom. Flowing through the heart of the Chola territory, it made the soil fertile, which in turn supported extensive agricultural activities. The richness of the land, as indicated by the various names like Kaveri Nadu and Kaveri Soozh Nadu, allowed the kingdom to thrive agriculturally. The construction of the Kallanai dam by Karikalan across the Kaveri river was a monumental achievement that further enhanced irrigation, ensuring a stable and abundant supply of water for crops. This agricultural abundance not only fed the population but also provided surplus produce that could be traded, bolstering the economy of the region. The river’s significance extended beyond agriculture, as it also supported commerce and trade, particularly through the port-city of Kaveripoompattinam, which became a vital hub for merchants from foreign countries.
33. Describe the various social groups in the Sangam Age and their modes of livelihood as mentioned in the Sangam literature.
Answer: The Sangam literature describes a diverse society during the Sangam Age, where different social groups were engaged in various modes of livelihood based on the geography and resources of their regions. The society was divided into five tinais or geographical divisions:
- Kurinji (hilly backwoods): Inhabitants were primarily hunters and gatherers.
- Palai (parched zones): People in these areas lived by plunder and cattle lifting due to the harsh environment.
- Mullai (pastoral tract): This region supported subsistence through shifting agriculture and animal husbandry.
- Marutam (wetland): The wetland inhabitants focused on plough agriculture, growing crops like rice and other essential grains.
- Neital (littoral land): Inhabitants here were dependent on fishing and salt extraction from the coastal areas.
In addition to these primary groups, the literature also references full-time craftsmen like goldsmiths, blacksmiths, and potters, who contributed to the economic activities of the time. These social groups adapted to their environments and engaged in activities that best suited the natural resources available to them, ensuring the survival and prosperity of their communities.
