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Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: AHSEC Class 12 History notes
Get summaries, questions, answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF and guide of Class 12 (second year) History textbook, chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings which is part of the syllabus of students studying under AHSEC/ASSEB (Assam Board). These solutions, however, should only be treated as references and can be modified/changed.
If you notice any errors in the notes, please mention them in the comments
Summary
The chapter explores the ideas and beliefs that shaped early Indian thought, focusing on the development of Buddhism. It begins with the stupa at Sanchi, one of the best-preserved monuments, and how it survived due to efforts by local rulers like Shahjehan Begum. In the 19th century, European scholars showed interest in the site, but preservation efforts ensured that the stupa remained in India.
It then moves to the period around the first millennium BCE, a time when many thinkers across the world, including Buddha and Mahavira, questioned existing traditions. In India, the Vedic tradition revolved around sacrifices to gods like Agni and Indra. Over time, some people began questioning these rituals, leading to new philosophical discussions. The Upanishads explored ideas about life, death, and the soul. Meanwhile, Buddhist texts record many debates among teachers, each trying to explain the nature of existence.
Jainism, which existed before Mahavira, taught that all living things, including rocks and water, had life. Jain teachings promoted non-violence, renunciation, and asceticism. Mahavira’s followers recorded his teachings, emphasizing discipline and self-control. Jain monks and nuns took vows to avoid harming any creature, speaking falsely, or accumulating wealth.
Buddhism emerged as another important tradition. Siddhartha Gautama, born into a royal family, left his palace after seeing suffering in the world. He meditated and found enlightenment, becoming the Buddha. He taught that suffering was part of life but could be overcome by following the Middle Path—avoiding both extreme luxury and severe hardship. His teachings focused on morality and self-discipline rather than religious rituals.
Buddhism spread through monks and nuns who formed a community called the sangha. Though initially restricted to men, later, women were also allowed to join. The sangha welcomed people from all backgrounds, treating them as equals. The teachings of the Buddha were compiled in texts called the Tipitaka and spread to different regions over time.
Stupas, which contained relics of the Buddha, became important religious sites. Rulers, merchants, and common people contributed to their construction. The Sanchi stupa is a fine example, with its detailed carvings and symbolic designs. Images of the Buddha were often represented through symbols like footprints, the Bodhi tree, or the wheel.
Over time, new religious traditions emerged. Mahayana Buddhism introduced the idea of bodhisattvas, enlightened beings who delayed their own liberation to help others. Hindu traditions like Vaishnavism and Shaivism also grew, with temples and sculptures depicting various deities.
The chapter highlights how religious beliefs evolved through interactions, debates, and artistic expressions that continue to shape Indian culture today.
Textbook solutions
Answer in 100-150 words
1. Were the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers different from those of the fatalists and materialists? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer: Yes, the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers were different from those of the fatalists and materialists. The Upanishadic thinkers were concerned with understanding and expressing the nature of the ultimate reality, questioning concepts like rebirth and the significance of the sacrificial tradition. They explored whether there was a single ultimate reality and debated the meaning of life and the possibility of life after death. In contrast, fatalists, such as the Ajivikas, believed that everything was predetermined and unchangeable, while materialists, like the Lokayatas, denied the existence of an afterlife and considered human existence purely physical. These differences highlight the philosophical diversity of the time.
2. Summarise the central teachings of Jainism.
Answer: The basic philosophy of the Jainas was already in existence in north India before the birth of Vardhamana, who came to be known as Mahavira, in the sixth century BCE. According to Jaina tradition, Mahavira was preceded by 23 other teachers or tirthankaras – literally, those who guide men and women across the river of existence.
The most important idea in Jainism is that the entire world is animated: even stones, rocks, and water have life. Non-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals, plants, and insects, is central to Jaina philosophy. The principle of ahimsa, emphasised within Jainism, has left its mark on Indian thinking as a whole. According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma. Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma. This can be achieved only by renouncing the world; therefore, monastic existence is a necessary condition of salvation. Jaina monks and nuns took five vows: to abstain from killing, stealing, and lying; to observe celibacy; and to abstain from possessing property.
3. Discuss the role of the begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupa at Sanchi.
Answer: The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided money for the preservation of the ancient site. John Marshall dedicated his important volumes on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan. She funded the museum that was built there as well as the guesthouse where he lived and wrote the volumes. She also funded the publication of the volumes. If the stupa complex has survived, it is in no small measure due to wise decisions and good luck in escaping the eyes of railway contractors, builders, and those looking for finds to carry away to the museums of Europe.
4. Read this short inscription and answer:
In the year 33 of the maharaja Huvishka (a Kushana ruler), in the first month of the hot season on the eighth day, a Bodhisatta was set up at Madhuvanaka by the bhikkhuni Dhanavati, the sister’s daughter of the bhikkhuni Buddhamita, who knows the Tipitaka, the female pupil of the bhikkhu Bala, who knows the Tipitaka, together with her father and mother.
(a) How did Dhanavati date her inscription?
Answer: In the year 33 of the maharaja Huvishka (a Kushana ruler), in the first month of the hot season on the eighth day.
(b) Why do you think she installed an image of the Bodhisatta?
Answer: A Bodhisatta was set up at Madhuvanaka by the bhikkhuni Dhanavati.
(c) Who were the relatives she mentioned?
Answer: The sister’s daughter of the bhikkhuni Buddhamita, together with her father and mother.
(d) What Buddhist text did she know?
Answer: The Tipitaka.
(e) From whom did she learn this text?
Answer: The bhikkhuni Buddhamita, who knows the Tipitaka, the female pupil of the bhikkhu Bala, who knows the Tipitaka.
5. Why do you think women and men joined the sangha?
Answer: Men and women joined the sangha for various reasons. Many were drawn to the teachings of the Buddha, which emphasized individual effort and righteous action as a means to attain liberation from suffering. The sangha provided an opportunity to renounce worldly life and seek spiritual enlightenment. It was open to people from different social backgrounds, including kings, wealthy men, workers, slaves, and craftspeople, offering them a sense of equality. Women were initially not allowed but later admitted through the efforts of Ananda, one of the Buddha’s disciples. The Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami, was the first woman to be ordained. Many women joined to escape social constraints and seek spiritual growth, eventually becoming respected teachers of dhamma. The internal functioning of the sangha was based on discussions and consensus, making it an inclusive space for spiritual practice.
Short essay-type answers
1. To what extent does knowledge of Buddhist literature help in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi?
Answer: Buddhist literature mentions several chaityas. It also describes places associated with the Buddha’s life—where he was born (Lumbini), where he attained enlightenment (Bodh Gaya), where he gave his first sermon (Sarnath), and where he attained nibbana (Kusinagara). Gradually, each of these places came to be regarded as sacred. We know that about 200 years after the time of the Buddha, Asoka erected a pillar at Lumbini to mark the fact that he had visited the place.
There were other places too that were regarded as sacred. This was because relics of the Buddha, such as his bodily remains or objects used by him, were buried there. These were mounds known as stupas. The tradition of erecting stupas may have been pre-Buddhist, but they came to be associated with Buddhism. Since they contained relics regarded as sacred, the entire stupa came to be venerated as an emblem of both the Buddha and Buddhism. According to a Buddhist text known as the Ashokavadana, Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them. By the second century BCE, a number of stupas, including those at Bharhut, Sanchi, and Sarnath, had been built.
Many early sculptors did not show the Buddha in human form—instead, they showed his presence through symbols. The empty seat was meant to indicate the meditation of the Buddha, and the stupa was meant to represent the Mahaparinibbana. Another frequently used symbol was the wheel. This stood for the first sermon of the Buddha, delivered at Sarnath. As is obvious, such sculptures cannot be understood literally—for instance, the tree does not stand simply for a tree, but symbolizes an event in the life of the Buddha. In order to understand such symbols, historians have to familiarize themselves with the traditions of those who produced these works of art.
Art historians had to acquire familiarity with hagiographies of the Buddha in order to understand Buddhist sculpture. According to hagiographies, the Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating under a tree. Other sculptures at Sanchi were perhaps not directly inspired by Buddhist ideas. These include beautiful women swinging from the edge of the gateway, holding onto a tree. Initially, scholars were a bit intrigued about this image, which seemed to have little to do with renunciation. However, after examining other literary traditions, they realized that it could be a representation of what is described in Sanskrit as a shalabhanjika. According to popular belief, this was a woman whose touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit. It is likely that this was regarded as an auspicious symbol and integrated into the decoration of the stupa. The shalabhanjika motif suggests that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their own pre-Buddhist and even non-Buddhist beliefs, practices, and ideas.
There are other images as well. For instance, some of the finest depictions of animals are found there. These animals include elephants, horses, monkeys, and cattle. While the Jatakas contain several animal stories that are depicted at Sanchi, it is likely that many of these animals were carved to create lively scenes to draw viewers. Also, animals were often used as symbols of human attributes. Elephants, for example, were depicted to signify strength and wisdom.
Another motif is that of a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants, which seem to be sprinkling water on her as if performing an abhisheka or consecration. While some historians identify the figure as Maya, the mother of the Buddha, others identify her with a popular goddess, Gajalakshmi—literally, the goddess of good fortune—who is associated with elephants. It is also possible that devotees who saw these sculptures identified the figure with both Maya and Gajalakshmi.
The serpent, which is found on several pillars, seems to be derived from popular traditions, which were not always recorded in texts. Interestingly, one of the earliest modern art historians, James Fergusson, considered Sanchi to be a centre of tree and serpent worship. He was not familiar with Buddhist literature—most of which had not yet been translated—and arrived at this conclusion by studying only the images on their own.
Thus, Buddhist literature is crucial in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi because it helps in interpreting the symbolism, identifying narratives, and providing historical context for the art found at the site.
7. Figs. 4.32 and 4.33 are two scenes from Sanchi. Describe what you see in each of them, focusing on the architecture, plants and animals, and the activities. Identify which one shows a rural scene and which an urban scene, giving reasons for your answer.
Answer: Fig. 4.32 represents a rural scene. The architecture in this image consists of small huts with simple openings, indicating a village setting. Various animals, including bulls or cows, can be seen, which suggests an agrarian lifestyle. The presence of trees and plants reinforces the natural environment. The figures in the image appear to be engaged in activities such as carrying loads, tending to animals, or interacting with each other, which highlights the agricultural and pastoral nature of the scene.
Fig. 4.33 illustrates an urban scene. The architecture is more sophisticated, featuring a multi-tiered structure with rows of pillars and decorative elements, indicative of a developed town or city. The human figures in the image are involved in various social interactions, possibly representing merchants, scholars, or officials in discussion. The structured arrangement of spaces and activities suggests an organized urban environment, likely a market or public space.
Thus, Fig. 4.32 is a rural scene, characterized by simple huts, animals, and agrarian activities, while Fig. 4.33 is an urban scene, identifiable by its architectural complexity, structured spaces, and depictions of social interactions. These sculptures from Sanchi offer valuable insights into the coexistence of rural and urban life in ancient India.
8. Discuss the development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
Answer: The development of Vaishnavism and Shaivism led to significant advancements in sculpture and architecture. These traditions emphasized the worship of chosen deities, Vishnu and Shiva, respectively, which influenced the construction of temples and artistic representations.
In Vaishnavism, cults developed around various avatars of Vishnu. Ten avatars were recognized, and different regions favored different forms. Sculptures depicting these forms became popular, showcasing Vishnu in various manifestations such as Varaha rescuing the earth goddess. Similarly, Shaivism saw the representation of Shiva in both symbolic and human forms. The linga symbolized Shiva, though he was also depicted with multiple arms, adorned with symbolic ornaments and weapons.
To house these images, the first temples were built. The earliest temples were small square structures called garbhagriha, with a single doorway for worshippers. Over time, these temples evolved to include a shikhara (tower) above the central shrine, as well as elaborate walls and gateways adorned with intricate carvings.
Some temples were also carved out of rocks, continuing an earlier tradition. Notable examples include the Kailashnatha temple at Ellora, which was carved out of a single rock. This architectural marvel showcased the skill and craftsmanship of the time.
The Puranas, compiled by Brahmanas, played a key role in consolidating religious traditions. They contained stories of gods and goddesses, helping to spread and standardize religious beliefs. These texts were written in simple Sanskrit and were meant to be accessible to all, including those who did not have access to Vedic learning.
The interaction between priests, merchants, and ordinary people contributed to the evolution of temple architecture and sculpture. For example, Vasudeva-Krishna was an important deity in the Mathura region, and his worship spread across India, influencing artistic representations and temple construction.
Thus, the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism resulted in the creation of grand temples, intricate sculptures, and a rich artistic tradition that reflected the deep devotion and religious beliefs of the people.
9. Discuss how and why stupas were built.
Answer: Stupas were built as sacred structures associated with Buddhism. The tradition of erecting stupas may have been pre-Buddhist, but they came to be closely linked with Buddhism. These structures were built to enshrine relics of the Buddha, such as his bodily remains or objects used by him. Because these relics were considered sacred, the entire stupa was venerated as an emblem of both the Buddha and Buddhism.
According to the Buddhist text Ashokavadana, Emperor Ashoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them. By the second century BCE, a number of stupas, including those at Bharhut, Sanchi, and Sarnath, had been built.
The construction of stupas was made possible through donations recorded in inscriptions found on their railings and pillars. Some of these donations were made by kings, such as the Satavahanas, while others came from guilds, such as the ivory workers who financed part of one of the gateways at Sanchi. Hundreds of men and women contributed, mentioning their names, occupations, places of origin, and sometimes the names of their relatives. Even monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis) contributed to the construction of these monuments.
The stupa originated as a simple, semi-circular mound of earth, later called anda. Over time, it evolved into a more complex structure, balancing round and square shapes. Above the anda was the harmika, a balcony-like structure that represented the abode of the gods. From the harmika arose a mast called the yashti, often surmounted by a chhatri or umbrella. A railing surrounded the mound, separating the sacred space from the secular world.
The early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were plain except for the stone railings, which resembled bamboo or wooden fences, and the gateways (toranas), which were richly carved and installed at the four cardinal points. Worshippers entered through the eastern gateway and walked around the mound in a clockwise direction, keeping the mound to their right, imitating the sun’s course through the sky. Over time, stupas became more elaborately decorated, as seen in the carvings at Amaravati and Shah-ji-ki-Dheri in Peshawar.
The significance of stupas lay not only in their religious function but also in their architectural grandeur, as they became focal points for Buddhist devotion and pilgrimage.
Extras
Additional questions and answers
1. Define stupa?
Answer: The stupa, a Sanskrit word meaning a heap, originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth, later called anda. Since stupas contained relics regarded as sacred, the entire stupa came to be venerated as an emblem of both the Buddha and Buddhism.
2. What is the Tipitaka?
Answer: Tipitaka literally means three baskets to hold different types of texts. These compilations were first transmitted orally and then written and classified according to length as well as subject matter. The Vinaya Pitaka included rules and regulations for those who joined the sangha or monastic order; the Buddha’s teachings were included in the Sutta Pitaka; and the Abhidhamma Pitaka dealt with philosophical matters. Each pitaka comprised a number of individual texts.
3. Who founded the sangha?
Answer: The Buddha founded a sangha, an organisation of monks who too became teachers of dhamma.
4. Define bhikkhu?
Answer: Bhikkhus were monks who lived simply, possessing only the essential requisites for survival, such as a bowl to receive food once a day from the laity. As they lived on alms, they were known as bhikkhus.
5. Who was Mahapajapati Gotami?
Answer: Mahapajapati Gotami was the Buddha’s foster mother and the first woman to be ordained as a bhikkhuni.
6. Define hagiography?
Answer: Hagiography is a biography of a saint or religious leader. Hagiographies often praise the saint’s achievements, and may not always be literally accurate. They are important because they tell us about the beliefs of the followers of that particular tradition.
7. What is meant by kutagarashala?
Answer: Debates took place in the kutagarashala – literally, a hut with a pointed roof – or in groves where travelling mendicants halted.
8. What are chaityas?
Answer: From earliest times, people tended to regard certain places as sacred. These included sites with special trees or unique rocks, or sites of awe-inspiring natural beauty. These sites, with small shrines attached to them, were sometimes described as chaityas. Chaitya may also have been derived from the word chita, meaning a funeral pyre, and by extension a funerary mound.
9. What is the anda of a stupa?
Answer: The stupa originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth, later called anda.
10. Who were bhikkhunis?
Answer: Bhikkhunis were women ordained into the Buddhist sangha or monastic order. The Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami, was the first woman to be ordained as a bhikkhuni.
Once within the sangha, bhikkhunis were regarded as equal to bhikkhus (monks), having shed their earlier social identities. Many women who entered the sangha became teachers of dhamma and went on to become theris, or respected women who had attained liberation. Bhikkhunis also composed verses, such as those collected in the Therigatha, and contributed towards building monuments like stupas.
11. What was the Ashokavadana?
Answer: The Ashokavadana is a Buddhist text. According to this text, the Mauryan ruler Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them.
12. Describe briefly the early Vedic tradition?
Answer: The early Vedic tradition, known from the Rigveda compiled between c. 1500 and 1000 BCE, involved the worship of various deities, especially Agni, Indra, and Soma, through hymns. Many of these hymns were chanted when sacrifices were performed. People prayed during these sacrifices for cattle, sons, good health, long life, etc. Initially, these sacrifices were performed collectively.
13. Mention two elaborate Vedic sacrifices performed by kings?
Answer: Two elaborate Vedic sacrifices performed by chiefs and kings were the rajasuya and the ashvamedha. These rituals required the expertise of Brahmana priests for their conduction.
14. What was the central idea of Jainism regarding life?
Answer: The most important idea in Jainism is that the entire world is animated: even stones, rocks and water have life. Consequently, non-injury (ahimsa) to living beings, especially to humans, animals, plants and insects, is central to Jaina philosophy.
15. What is anatta according to Buddhist teachings?
Answer: According to Buddhist teachings, the world is also soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it.
16. State the significance of the Therigatha?
Answer: The Therigatha is a unique Buddhist text, part of the Sutta Pitaka, which is a collection of verses composed by bhikkhunis. Its significance is that it provides an insight into women’s social and spiritual experiences.
17. What were the earliest Buddhist texts composed in?
Answer: Some of the oldest Buddhist texts are in Pali.
18. Name two pilgrims who travelled from China to India?
Answer: Pilgrims such as Fa Xian and Xuan Zang travelled all the way from China to India in search of texts.
19. What was the role of Ananda in Buddhist history?
Answer: According to Buddhist texts, the admission of women into the sangha was made possible through the mediation of Ananda, one of the Buddha’s dearest disciples, who persuaded him to allow women into the sangha.
20. Why did Buddhism appeal to many people?
Answer: Buddhism grew rapidly both during the lifetime of the Buddha and after his death, as it appealed to many people dissatisfied with existing religious practices and confused by the rapid social changes taking place around them.
The importance attached to conduct and values rather than claims of superiority based on birth, the emphasis placed on metta (fellow feeling) and karuna (compassion), especially for those who were younger and weaker than oneself, were ideas that drew men and women to Buddhist teachings.
21. Describe briefly how the Buddha achieved enlightenment?
Answer: Siddhartha explored several paths including bodily mortification which led him to a situation of near death. Abandoning these extreme methods, he meditated for several days under a tree and finally attained enlightenment. After this he came to be known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One.
22. Explain the sacrificial tradition of the Vedic period?
Answer: The early Vedic tradition, known from the Rigveda compiled between c.1500 and 1000 BCE, involved sacrifices. The Rigveda consists of hymns in praise of deities like Agni, Indra, and Soma, which were chanted when sacrifices were performed. People prayed for cattle, sons, good health, long life, etc.
Initially, sacrifices were performed collectively. Later, from c. 1000 BCE-500 BCE onwards, some were performed by heads of households for the well-being of the domestic unit. More elaborate sacrifices, like the rajasuya and ashvamedha, were performed by chiefs and kings who depended on Brahmana priests to conduct the ritual.
23. Discuss the debate traditions of the mid-first millennium BCE?
Answer: Lively discussions and debates occurred, with Buddhist texts mentioning as many as 64 sects or schools of thought. Teachers travelled, trying to convince others and laypersons about their philosophy. Debates took place in kutagarashalas (huts with pointed roofs) or groves where travelling mendicants halted.
If a philosopher convinced a rival, the rival’s followers became his disciples, causing support for sects to grow or shrink. Many teachers, including Mahavira and the Buddha, questioned the authority of the Vedas and emphasised individual agency, suggesting men and women could strive for liberation from worldly existence, contrasting with the Brahmanical view that existence was determined by birth in a specific caste or gender.
24. What are the main teachings of Mahavira?
Answer: The basic philosophy of the Jainas, associated with Mahavira, includes the idea that the entire world is animated; even stones, rocks, and water have life. Non-injury (ahimsa) to living beings, especially humans, animals, plants, and insects, is central.
According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma. Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma, achievable only by renouncing the world; thus, monastic existence is necessary for salvation. Jaina monks and nuns took five vows: to abstain from killing, stealing, and lying; to observe celibacy; and to abstain from possessing property.
25. What were the vows taken by Jaina monks and nuns?
Answer: Jaina monks and nuns took five vows: to abstain from killing, stealing and lying; to observe celibacy; and to abstain from possessing property.
26. Discuss the Buddha’s views about the social world?
Answer: The Buddha regarded the social world as the creation of humans rather than of divine origin. Therefore, he advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical. Individual effort was expected to transform social relations.
27. Explain the purpose behind the formation of Buddhist sangha?
Answer: Soon there grew a body of disciples of the Buddha and he founded a sangha, an organisation of monks who too became teachers of dhamma.
28. Describe the structure and symbolic elements of a stupa?
Answer: The stupa originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth, later called anda. Gradually, it evolved into a more complex structure, balancing round and square shapes. Above the anda was the harmika, a balcony-like structure that represented the abode of the gods. Arising from the harmika was a mast called the yashti, often surmounted by a chhatri or umbrella. Around the mound was a railing, separating the sacred space from the secular world.
The early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were plain except for the stone railings, which resembled a bamboo or wooden fence, and the gateways, which were richly carved and installed at the four cardinal points. Since stupas contained relics regarded as sacred, the entire stupa came to be venerated as an emblem of both the Buddha and Buddhism.
29. Why did rulers and guilds donate money for stupas?
Answer: Inscriptions found on the railings and pillars of stupas record donations made for building and decorating them. Some donations were made by kings such as the Satavahanas; others were made by guilds, such as that of the ivory workers who financed part of one of the gateways at Sanchi.
Hundreds of donations were made by women and men who mention their names, sometimes adding the name of the place from where they came, as well as their occupations and names of their relatives. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis also contributed towards building these monuments.
30. What was the significance of Mahayana Buddhism?
Answer: By the first century CE, there is evidence of changes in Buddhist ideas and practices. Early Buddhist teachings had given great importance to self-effort in achieving nibbana, and the Buddha was regarded as a human being who attained enlightenment and nibbana through his own efforts. However, gradually the idea of a saviour emerged in Mahayana Buddhism. It was believed that he was the one who could ensure salvation.
Simultaneously, the concept of the Bodhisatta also developed. Bodhisattas were perceived as deeply compassionate beings who accumulated merit through their efforts but used this not to attain nibbana and thereby abandon the world, but to help others. The worship of images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas became an important part of this tradition. This new way of thinking was called Mahayana – literally, the “great vehicle”.
31. Discuss the role of women in early Buddhist traditions?
Answer: Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha, but later women also came to be admitted. According to Buddhist texts, this was made possible through the mediation of Ananda, one of the Buddha’s dearest disciples, who persuaded him to allow women into the sangha. The Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami was the first woman to be ordained as a bhikkhuni.
Many women who entered the sangha became teachers of dhamma and went on to become theris, or respected women who had attained liberation. The Therigatha, a unique Buddhist text which is part of the Sutta Pitaka, is a collection of verses composed by bhikkhunis, providing insight into women’s social and spiritual experiences. Women, along with men, also made donations for the building and decoration of stupas, sometimes mentioning their names, place of origin, occupations, and relatives. Some women, like the bhikkhuni Buddhamita mentioned in an inscription, knew the Tipitaka and had female pupils.
Additional MCQs
1. What is the ancient monument in Bhopal known for its stupa complex?
A. Sanchi
B. Ajanta
C. Ellora
D. Amaravati
Answer: A. Sanchi
2. How far is Sanchi located from Bhopal?
A. 20 miles north-east
B. 20 miles south-west
C. 50 miles east
D. 50 miles west
Answer: A. 20 miles north-east
3. Which ruler provided funds for the preservation of the ancient site and also funded the museum built there?
A. Shahjehan Begum
B. Sultan Jehan Begum
C. Alexander Cunningham
D. John Marshall
Answer: B. Sultan Jehan Begum
4. Which European official spent several weeks examining the ruins at Sanchi, making drawings and deciphering inscriptions?
A. Major Alexander Cunningham
B. Walter Elliot
C. H.H. Cole
D. Colin Mackenzie
Answer: A. Major Alexander Cunningham
5. Which European nation sought permission to remove the eastern gateway of Sanchi?
A. Spanish
B. French
C. British
D. German
Answer: B. French
6. What method was used to satisfy European requests for the Sanchi gateway instead of removing the original?
A. Stone replication
B. Plaster-cast copies
C. Photographic reproductions
D. Hand-painted replicas
Answer: B. Plaster-cast copies
7. Which organisation is credited with the restoration and preservation of the Sanchi site?
A. National Museum
B. Archaeological Survey of India
C. Indian Museum, Calcutta
D. Government Museum, Madras
Answer: B. Archaeological Survey of India
8. Which ancient text is known for its hymns in praise of deities such as Agni, Indra, and Soma?
A. Upanishads
B. Rigveda
C. Sutta Pitaka
D. Mahavamsa
Answer: B. Rigveda
9. Approximately when was the Rigveda compiled?
A. c. 1500–1000 BCE
B. c. 1000–500 BCE
C. c. sixth century BCE
D. c. third century BCE
Answer: A. c. 1500–1000 BCE
10. Which deity, associated with fire, is prominently invoked in the Rigveda?
A. Indra
B. Soma
C. Agni
D. Varuna
Answer: C. Agni
11. What are the elaborate royal sacrifices?
A. Pujas and yajnas
B. Rajasuya and ashvamedha
C. Homas and archana
D. Abhishek and pradakshina
Answer: B. Rajasuya and ashvamedha
12. Which texts introduced new philosophical questions about the ultimate reality and rebirth?
A. Vedas
B. Upanishads
C. Puranas
D. Tipitaka
Answer: B. Upanishads
13. Around which century did the composition of the Upanishads begin?
A. c. third century BCE
B. c. first century BCE
C. c. sixth century BCE
D. c. first century CE
Answer: C. c. sixth century BCE
14. According to Buddhist texts, how many sects or schools of thought are mentioned?
A. 16
B. 32
C. 64
D. 128
Answer: C. 64
15. In what kind of setting did early philosophers often engage in debates?
A. Royal courts
B. Marketplaces
C. Kutagarashala (a pointed-roof hut)
D. Temple courtyards
Answer: C. Kutagarashala (a pointed-roof hut)
16. Who was the first woman to be ordained into the Buddhist monastic order?
A. Punna
B. Mahapajapati Gotami
C. Ananda
D. Sigala
Answer: B. Mahapajapati Gotami
17. Which disciple mediated the admission of women into the Buddhist sangha?
A. Ananda
B. Ajitasattu
C. Makkhali Gosala
D. Ajita Kesakambalin
Answer: A. Ananda
18. What is the name of the Buddhist canon compiled by the Buddha’s disciples?
A. Mahavamsa
B. Dipavamsa
C. Tipitaka
D. Upanishads
Answer: C. Tipitaka
19. What are the three main divisions of the Tipitaka?
A. Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka
B. Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda
C. Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana, Mahabharata
D. Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Jataka
Answer: A. Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka
20. At which location were the Buddha’s teachings compiled by his disciples?
A. Lumbini
B. Bodh Gaya
C. Vesali
D. Sarnath
Answer: C. Vesali
21. Which teacher is associated with the fatalistic view in early Buddhist discussions?
A. Mahavira
B. Makkhali Gosala
C. Buddha
D. Ajita Kesakambalin
Answer: B. Makkhali Gosala
22. Which teacher argued that concepts like alms, sacrifice, and the world are illusory?
A. Makkhali Gosala
B. Ajita Kesakambalin
C. Socrates
D. Kong Zi
Answer: B. Ajita Kesakambalin
23. To which group did Ajita Kesakambalin belong?
A. Buddhists
B. Ajivikas
C. Lokayatas
D. Jainas
Answer: C. Lokayatas
24. In which century was Mahavira, the reformer of Jainism, born?
A. Sixth century BCE
B. Fourth century BCE
C. Second century BCE
D. First century CE
Answer: A. Sixth century BCE
25. According to Jain tradition, how many tirthankaras preceded Mahavira?
A. 22
B. 23
C. 24
D. 25
Answer: B. 23
26. What central principle is at the heart of Jain philosophy?
A. Renunciation
B. Non-injury
C. Meditation
D. Ritual sacrifice
Answer: B. Non-injury
27. How many vows did Jain monks and nuns take?
A. 3
B. 4
C. 5
D. 6
Answer: C. 5
28. What was Siddhartha’s name at birth?
A. Buddha
B. Mahavira
C. Siddhartha
D. Ajitasattu
Answer: C. Siddhartha
29. Into which clan was Siddhartha born?
A. Maurya
B. Gupta
C. Sakya
D. Chola
Answer: C. Sakya
30. Which three sights deeply affected Siddhartha and led him to renounce palace life?
A. A festival, a battle, a market
B. An old man, a sick man, and a corpse
C. A temple, a river, and a forest
D. A king, a teacher, and a sage
Answer: B. An old man, a sick man, and a corpse
31. After attaining enlightenment, by what title did Siddhartha become known?
A. Mahavira
B. Bodhisattva
C. Buddha
D. Upanishad
Answer: C. Buddha
32. What did the Buddha primarily teach after his enlightenment?
A. Karma
B. Dhamma
C. Nirvana
D. Samsara
Answer: B. Dhamma
33. According to Buddhist philosophy, what two characteristics describe the world?
A. Eternal and unchanging
B. Transient and soulless
C. Divine and perfect
D. Illusory and permanent
Answer: B. Transient and soulless
34. What term is used in Buddhism to describe the intrinsic sorrow of human existence?
A. Anicca
B. Anatta
C. Dukkha
D. Samsara
Answer: C. Dukkha
35. Which of the following were the Buddha’s last words to his followers?
A. “Follow the Vedas”
B. “Renounce society”
C. “Be lamps unto yourselves”
D. “Seek divine intervention”
Answer: C. “Be lamps unto yourselves”
36. What does the Sutta Pitaka primarily contain?
A. Rules for monastic life
B. A collection of Buddha’s discourses
C. Philosophical treatises
D. Historical chronicles
Answer: B. A collection of Buddha’s discourses
37. What is the term for the Buddhist monastic community?
A. Vihara
B. Sangha
C. Mandala
D. Stupa
Answer: B. Sangha
38. Who was the first bhikkhuni in the Buddhist tradition?
A. Punna
B. Mahapajapati Gotami
C. Ananda
D. Sigala
Answer: B. Mahapajapati Gotami
39. Which social groups were allowed to join the Buddhist sangha?
A. Only royalty
B. Only upper caste
C. Only ascetics
D. All social groups
Answer: D. All social groups
40. How were decisions typically made within the Buddhist sangha?
A. By royal decree
B. By consensus and vote
C. By divine command
D. By seniority
Answer: B. By consensus and vote
41. What is the Therigatha?
A. A legal code for monks
B. A collection of verses by bhikkhunis
C. A biography of the Buddha
D. A commentary on the Tipitaka
Answer: B. A collection of verses by bhikkhunis
42. What was Punna’s occupation as mentioned in the verses?
A. Sculptor
B. Water carrier
C. Priestess
D. Teacher
Answer: B. Water carrier
43. Which ritual did the Brahmana perform that Punna questioned in her verses?
A. Sacrificial ritual
B. Bathing ritual
C. Meditation
D. Prayer
Answer: B. Bathing ritual
44. According to the Vinaya Pitaka, for how many years must a newly made felt be kept by a bhikkhu?
A. One year
B. Three years
C. Six years
D. Ten years
Answer: C. Six years
45. What is the maximum number of bowlfuls a bhikkhu may accept from a family residence?
A. One
B. Two or three
C. Four
D. Five
Answer: B. Two or three
46. If a bhikkhu accepts more than the permitted food from a family residence, what must he do?
A. Keep the extra food
B. Donate it to the laity
C. Share it among bhikkhus
D. Discard it immediately
Answer: C. Share it among bhikkhus
47. What is the Sanskrit word “stupa” originally meant to denote?
A. A mound or heap
B. A temple hall
C. A sacred tree
D. A ritual fire
Answer: A. A mound or heap
48. What pre-Buddhist sacred structure is associated with natural sites?
A. Mandala
B. Chaitya
C. Vihara
D. Gharhara
Answer: B. Chaitya
49. Which ruler is known for having erected a pillar at Lumbini?
A. Akbar
B. Chandragupta
C. Asoka
D. Harsha
Answer: C. Asoka
50. Around which century were the first stupas built?
A. Third century BCE
B. First century BCE
C. First century CE
D. Second century BCE
Answer: A. Third century BCE
51. Which Buddhist text records Asoka’s distribution of the Buddha’s relics?
A. Dipavamsa
B. Mahavamsa
C. Ashokavadana
D. Tipitaka
Answer: C. Ashokavadana
52. In the structure of a stupa, which element represents the abode of the gods?
A. Anda
B. Harmika
C. Yashti
D. Chhatri
Answer: B. Harmika
53. In which direction do worshippers typically walk around a stupa?
A. Clockwise
B. Counterclockwise
C. Inward only
D. Randomly
Answer: A. Clockwise
54. Who discovered the stupa at Amaravati in 1796?
A. A local raja
B. Alexander Cunningham
C. Walter Elliot
D. H.H. Cole
Answer: A. A local raja
55. Which British official collected sculpture panels from Amaravati in 1854?
A. John Marshall
B. Colin Mackenzie
C. Walter Elliot
D. James Fergusson
Answer: C. Walter Elliot
56. Which archaeologist argued for the in situ preservation of sculptures, particularly at Sanchi?
A. H.H. Cole
B. Alexander Cunningham
C. Walter Elliot
D. John Marshall
Answer: A. H.H. Cole
57. In what year was Sanchi declared a World Heritage Site?
A. 1955
B. 1914
C. 1989
D. 1878
Answer: C. 1989
58. Which Jataka story is depicted in a Sanchi sculpture showing a generous prince?
A. Sibi Jataka
B. Vessantara Jataka
C. Devadatta Jataka
D. Mahakammata Jataka
Answer: B. Vessantara Jataka
59. In Buddhist sculpture, what does the empty seat symbolise?
A. The Buddha’s birth
B. The Buddha’s meditation
C. The Buddha’s death
D. The Buddha’s first sermon
Answer: B. The Buddha’s meditation
60. What does the wheel symbolise in Buddhist art?
A. The cycle of rebirth
B. The law of karma
C. The Buddha’s first sermon
D. The path of moderation
Answer: C. The Buddha’s first sermon
61. Which sculptural motif represents an auspicious woman whose touch causes trees to flower?
A. Yaksha
B. Shalabhanjika
C. Gandharva
D. Apsara
Answer: B. Shalabhanjika
62. Which animal is depicted in sculptures to signify strength and wisdom?
A. Horse
B. Monkey
C. Elephant
D. Cattle
Answer: C. Elephant
63. Which famous cave paintings are noted for their naturalistic style?
A. Ellora
B. Ajanta
C. Sanchi
D. Amaravati
Answer: B. Ajanta
64. The figure surrounded by lotuses and elephants in some paintings is often associated with which goddess of good fortune?
A. Durga
B. Parvati
C. Gajalakshmi
D. Saraswati
Answer: C. Gajalakshmi
65. Which motif, derived from popular traditions, is commonly found on pillars at Sanchi?
A. Lotus
B. Wheel
C. Tree
D. Serpent
Answer: D. Serpent
66. What does the term “Mahayana” literally mean?
A. Lesser vehicle
B. Middle path
C. Great vehicle
D. Sacred text
Answer: C. Great vehicle
67. How did followers of the older Buddhist tradition refer to themselves in contrast to Mahayana?
A. Hinayana
B. Theravada
C. Vajrayana
D. Mahayana
Answer: A. Hinayana
68. In Vaishnavism, how many avatars of Vishnu are traditionally recognised?
A. Five
B. Seven
C. Ten
D. Twelve
Answer: C. Ten
69. Which deity is symbolised by the linga in sculpture?
A. Vishnu
B. Brahma
C. Shiva
D. Krishna
Answer: C. Shiva
70. What was the early temple’s inner sanctum called, characterized as a small square room?
A. Mandapa
B. Garbhagriha
C. Shikhara
D. Vihara
Answer: B. Garbhagriha
71. What is the tall structure built over the central shrine of a temple called?
A. Harmika
B. Yashti
C. Shikhara
D. Chhatri
Answer: C. Shikhara
72. Which temple, carved out of a single rock, is associated with Shiva?
A. Kailashnatha
B. Deogarh
C. Mahabalipuram
D. Ellora
Answer: A. Kailashnatha
73. Who laid the foundation stone of the National Museum in New Delhi in 1955?
A. Prime Minister Nehru
B. Asoka
C. Shahjehan Begum
D. John Marshall
Answer: A. Prime Minister Nehru
74. Which art historian considered Sanchi a centre of tree and serpent worship?
A. H.H. Cole
B. John Marshall
C. James Fergusson
D. Alexander Cunningham
Answer: C. James Fergusson
75. Early European scholars often compared Indian sculpture with that of which ancient culture?
A. Roman
B. Egyptian
C. Greek
D. Persian
Answer: C. Greek
76. The debated sculpture in Mahabalipuram has been suggested to depict which two stories?
A. Buddha’s enlightenment and the Vessantara Jataka
B. The descent of the river Ganga and Arjuna’s penance
C. The birth of Buddha and the Jain tirthankaras
D. Mahavira’s message and Jain vows
Answer: B. The descent of the river Ganga and Arjuna’s penance
77. When did Early Upanishads, Jainism, and Buddhism emerge?
A. Third century BCE
B. Sixth century BCE
C. Second century BCE
D. Third century CE
Answer: B. Sixth century BCE
78. In which year was the Indian Museum in Calcutta founded?
A. 1814
B. 1834
C. 1854
D. 1888
Answer: A. 1814
79. Which year saw the passing of the Treasure Trove Act, granting the government rights over archaeological objects?
A. 1835
B. 1851
C. 1888
D. 1914
Answer: C. 1888
80. Which publication on Sanchi was released in 1914?
A. Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus
B. The Monuments of Sanchi
C. Conservation Manual
D. Buddha Gaya: The Heritage of Sakya Muni
Answer: B. The Monuments of Sanchi
81. Which year did John Marshall publish the Conservation Manual?
A. 1878
B. 1914
C. 1923
D. 1955
Answer: C. 1923
