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Through the Eyes of Travellers: AHSEC Class 12 History notes
Get summaries, questions, answers, solutions, notes, extras, PDF and guide of Class 12 (second year) History textbook, chapter 5 Through the Eyes of Travellers which is part of the syllabus of students studying under AHSEC/ASSEB (Assam Board). These solutions, however, should only be treated as references and can be modified/changed.
If you notice any errors in the notes, please mention them in the comments
Summary
People have always traveled to new places for work, trade, war, or adventure. When they arrived in a new land, they found different customs, languages, and traditions. Some adapted, while others documented what they saw. Most of the surviving travel accounts are by men. These records provide valuable details about societies, politics, and cultures of the past.
The chapter focuses on three travelers who visited India between the tenth and seventeenth centuries. Al-Biruni, from Uzbekistan, came in the eleventh century. Ibn Battuta, from Morocco, traveled in the fourteenth century. François Bernier, from France, visited in the seventeenth century. Their writings give us an outsider’s view of India.
Al-Biruni was brought to India by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1017. He was a scholar who studied Sanskrit and Hindu scriptures. His book, Kitab-ul-Hind, described Indian religion, philosophy, social life, and customs. He tried to compare Indian society with others. He found the caste system unusual and argued that it went against nature. He admired Indian knowledge but also pointed out its limits.
Ibn Battuta, born in Morocco, traveled widely before reaching India in 1333. He served as a judge in Delhi under Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq. His book, Rihla, describes Indian cities as large and full of markets and people. He noted that many items, such as textiles, were in high demand worldwide. He was also amazed by the postal system, which allowed messages to travel faster than people. He described Indian customs, such as chewing paan, which was new to him. He also mentioned the dangers of travel, including attacks by robbers.
François Bernier came to India in 1656. He was a doctor and historian who compared India with Europe. He believed that Mughal rule was flawed because the emperor controlled all the land. He argued that this system kept farmers poor and stopped economic progress. He described cities as dependent on the Mughal court, declining when the rulers moved. He also wrote about the practice of sati, where widows were forced to burn themselves alive.
The travelers’ accounts provide different views of Indian society. Some admired its wealth and culture, while others criticized its customs. Their descriptions were shaped by their own backgrounds and beliefs. Despite their differences, their writings help us understand India’s past.
Textbook solutions
Answer in 100-150 words
1. Write a note on the Kitab-ul-Hind.
Answer: Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind, written in Arabic, is simple and lucid. It is a voluminous text, divided into 80 chapters on subjects such as religion and philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws, and metrology. Generally (though not always), Al-Biruni adopted a distinctive structure in each chapter, beginning with a question, following this up with a description based on Sanskritic traditions, and concluding with a comparison with other cultures. Some present-day scholars have argued that this almost geometric structure, remarkable for its precision and predictability, owed much to his mathematical orientation. Al-Biruni, who wrote in Arabic, probably intended his work for peoples living along the frontiers of the subcontinent. He was familiar with translations and adaptations of Sanskrit, Pali, and Prakrit texts into Arabic – these ranged from fables to works on astronomy and medicine. However, he was also critical about the ways in which these texts were written and clearly wanted to improve on them.
2. Compare and contrast the perspectives from which Ibn Battuta and Bernier wrote their accounts of their travels in India.
Answer: Ibn Battuta’s book of travels, Rihla, written in Arabic, provides extremely rich and interesting details about the social and cultural life in the subcontinent in the fourteenth century. Unlike most other members of his class, Ibn Battuta considered experience gained through travels to be a more important source of knowledge than books. He meticulously recorded his observations about new cultures, peoples, beliefs, and values. He chose to describe everything that impressed and excited him because of its novelty.
François Bernier, on the other hand, belonged to a different intellectual tradition. He was far more preoccupied with comparing and contrasting what he saw in India with the situation in Europe, focusing on situations that he considered depressing. His idea seems to have been to influence policymakers and the intelligentsia to ensure that they made what he considered the “right” decisions. Bernier constantly compared Mughal India with contemporary Europe, generally emphasizing the superiority of the latter. His representation of India worked on the model of binary opposition, where India was presented as the inverse of Europe.
3. Discuss the picture of urban centres that emerges from Bernier’s account.
Answer: Bernier described Mughal cities as “camp towns”, meaning they owed their existence and depended for their survival on the imperial camp. He believed that these came into existence when the imperial court moved in and rapidly declined when it moved out. He suggested that they did not have viable social and economic foundations but were dependent on imperial patronage. He described Indian society as consisting of undifferentiated masses of impoverished people, subjugated by a small minority of a very rich and powerful ruling class. He confidently asserted: “There is no middle state in India.” He felt that artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their manufactures, since profits were appropriated by the state. He also noticed the existence of a prosperous merchant community, engaged in long-distance exchange. Bernier described Mughal cities as “ruined and contaminated with ill air.”
4. Analyse the evidence for slavery provided by Ibn Battuta.
Answer: Ibn Battuta provides evidence of slavery through his observations of the widespread practice of buying, selling, and gifting slaves in the subcontinent. He notes that slaves were openly traded in markets like any other commodity and were frequently exchanged as gifts. Upon reaching Sind, he purchased “horses, camels, and slaves” as gifts for Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq. In Multan, he presented the governor with “a slave and horse together with raisins and almonds.” The Sultan also gifted large numbers of slaves, including when he rewarded a preacher with “a hundred thousand tankas and two hundred slaves.” Female slaves had varied roles, some serving in the Sultan’s court as musicians and dancers, while others acted as spies, reporting on nobles. Slaves were also employed for domestic labor, particularly for carrying palanquins. Ibn Battuta notes that the price of slaves, especially female slaves for domestic work, was very low, making them accessible to many families.
5. What were the elements of the practice of sati that drew the attention of Bernier?
Answer: Bernier noted that while some women seemed to embrace death cheerfully, others were forced to die. At Lahore, he saw a most beautiful young widow sacrificed, who, he thought, could not have been more than twelve years of age. The poor little creature appeared more dead than alive when she approached the dreadful pit: the agony of her mind could not be described; she trembled and wept bitterly. But three or four of the Brahmanas, assisted by an old woman who held her under the arm, forced the unwilling victim toward the fatal spot, seated her on the wood, tied her hands and feet, lest she should run away, and in that situation, the innocent creature was burnt alive. Bernier found it difficult to repress his feelings and to prevent them from bursting forth into clamorous and unavailing rage.
Short essay-type answers
6. Discuss Al-Biruni’s understanding of the caste system.
Answer: Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by looking for parallels in other societies. He noted that in ancient Persia, four social categories were recognized: those of knights and princes; monks, fire-priests and lawyers; physicians, astronomers and other scientists; and finally, peasants and artisans. In other words, he attempted to suggest that social divisions were not unique to India. At the same time, he pointed out that within Islam all men were considered equal, differing only in their observance of piety.
In spite of his acceptance of the Brahmanical description of the caste system, Al-Biruni disapproved of the notion of pollution. He remarked that everything which falls into a state of impurity strives and succeeds in regaining its original condition of purity. The sun cleanses the air, and the salt in the sea prevents the water from becoming polluted. If it were not so, insisted Al-Biruni, life on earth would have been impossible. The conception of social pollution, intrinsic to the caste system, was, according to him, contrary to the laws of nature.
Al-Biruni described the system of varnas as follows: The highest caste is the Brahmana, created from the head of Brahman, considered the very best of mankind. The next caste is the Kshatriya, created from the shoulders and hands of Brahman, whose degree is not much below that of the Brahmana. After them follow the Vaishya, created from the thigh of Brahman. The Shudra, created from his feet, come last. Between the Vaishya and Shudra, there is no very great distance. Although these classes differ, they live together in the same towns and villages, mixed together in the same houses and lodgings.
Al-Biruni’s description of the caste system was deeply influenced by his study of normative Sanskrit texts, which laid down the rules governing the system from the Brahmanical perspective. However, in real life, the system was not as rigid. The categories defined as antyaja (literally, born outside the system) were often expected to provide inexpensive labor to both peasants and zamindars. While they were often subjected to social oppression, they were included within economic networks.
7. Do you think Ibn Battuta’s account is useful in arriving at an understanding of life in contemporary urban centres? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer: Ibn Battuta’s account is useful in understanding life in contemporary urban centres. He described cities in the subcontinent as densely populated and prosperous, except for the occasional disruptions caused by wars and invasions. Most cities had crowded streets and bright and colourful markets that were stacked with a wide variety of goods. Ibn Battuta described Delhi as a vast city, with a great population, the largest in India. Daulatabad (in Maharashtra) was no less, and easily rivalled Delhi in size. The bazaars were not only places of economic transactions, but also the hub of social and cultural activities. Most bazaars had a mosque and a temple, and in some of them at least, spaces were marked for public performances by dancers, musicians and singers. Ibn Battuta also noted that the subcontinent was well integrated with inter-Asian networks of trade and commerce, with Indian manufactures being in great demand in both West Asia and Southeast Asia, fetching huge profits for artisans and merchants. Indian textiles, particularly cotton cloth, fine muslins, silks, brocade and satin, were in great demand. Ibn Battuta informs us that certain varieties of fine muslin were so expensive that they could be worn only by the nobles and the very rich. The state evidently took special measures to encourage merchants. Almost all trade routes were well supplied with inns and guest houses. Ibn Battuta was also amazed by the efficiency of the postal system which allowed merchants to not only send information and remit credit across long distances, but also to dispatch goods required at short notice. The postal system was so efficient that while it took fifty days to reach Delhi from Sind, the news reports of spies would reach the Sultan through the postal system in just five days. These observations provide valuable insights into the economic, social, and cultural dynamics of urban centres during his time.
8. Discuss the extent to which Bernier’s account enables historians to reconstruct contemporary rural society.
Answer: François Bernier’s account provides a detailed but often critical perspective on rural society in Mughal India. He argued that the lack of private property in land was a fundamental issue, as the emperor owned all land and distributed it among his nobles. This, according to Bernier, led to disastrous consequences for the economy and society. He believed that landholders, unable to pass on their land to their children, were averse to long-term investments in agriculture, resulting in the uniform ruination of agriculture, excessive oppression of the peasantry, and a continuous decline in living standards for all sections of society except the ruling aristocracy.
Bernier described the peasantry as suffering under the tyranny of rapacious lords, who often deprived them of their means of subsistence and even took their children as slaves. He painted a bleak picture of rural India, with vast tracts of land remaining uncultivated due to a lack of laborers, many of whom perished due to bad treatment. He also noted that the peasantry, driven to despair, often abandoned the country.
However, Bernier’s descriptions occasionally hint at a more complex social reality. He acknowledged that some parts of India, like Bengal, were extremely fertile and produced a variety of crops and commercial goods. He also noted the existence of a prosperous merchant community engaged in long-distance trade and the flow of precious metals into India. Despite his critical stance, Bernier’s account provides valuable insights into the economic and social conditions of rural society during the Mughal period, though his views were often shaped by his comparisons with Europe and his belief in the virtues of private property.
9. Read this excerpt from Bernier:
Numerous are the instances of handsome pieces of workmanship made by persons destitute of tools, and who can scarcely be said to have received instruction from a master. Sometimes they imitate so perfectly articles of European manufacture that the difference between the original and copy can hardly be discerned. Among other things, the Indians make excellent muskets, and fowling-pieces, and such beautiful gold ornaments that it may be doubted if the exquisite workmanship of those articles can be exceeded by any European goldsmith. I have often admired the beauty, softness, and delicacy of their paintings.
List the crafts mentioned in the passage. Compare these with the descriptions of artisanal activity in the chapter.
Answer: The crafts mentioned in the passage include the making of muskets, fowling-pieces, gold ornaments, and paintings. These crafts are described as being of excellent quality, with the artisans often imitating European articles so perfectly that the difference between the original and the copy is hardly discernible. The passage also highlights the beauty, softness, and delicacy of Indian paintings.
In the chapter, Bernier provides a detailed account of the working of the imperial karkhanas or workshops, where artisans were employed in various crafts. He mentions embroiderers, goldsmiths, painters, varnishers in lacquer-work, joiners, turners, tailors, shoe-makers, and manufacturers of silk, brocade, and fine muslins. Bernier notes that the artisans worked under the supervision of a master and were employed in a quiet, regular manner, with little aspiration for improvement in their condition of life. He also observes that vast quantities of the world’s precious metals flowed into India, as manufactures were exported in exchange for gold and silver, indicating a prosperous merchant community engaged in long-distance exchange.
The descriptions in the chapter align with the excerpt, emphasizing the high quality and variety of Indian craftsmanship, particularly in textiles, gold and silver work, and paintings. However, Bernier also suggests that the artisans had little incentive to improve their crafts due to the state’s appropriation of profits, leading to a decline in the quality of manufactures over time.
Extras
Additional questions and answers
1. What is metrology?
Answer: Metrology is the science of measurement.
2. Where was Al-Biruni born?
Answer: Al-Biruni was born in 973, in Khwarizm in present-day Uzbekistan.
3. In which year did Ibn Battuta set out for India?
Answer: Ibn Battuta set off for India in 1332-33.
4. Name the Sultan who appointed Ibn Battuta as the qazi of Delhi.
Answer: Muhammad bin Tughlaq, the Sultan of Delhi, was impressed by Ibn Battuta’s scholarship, and appointed him the qazi or judge of Delhi.
5. What was Ibn Battuta’s travelogue titled?
Answer: Ibn Battuta’s book of travels was called Rihla.
6. Who was François Bernier?
Answer: François Bernier was a Frenchman who was a doctor, political philosopher and historian. Like many others, he came to the Mughal Empire in search of opportunities.
7. In which years did Bernier stay in India?
Answer: François Bernier was in India for twelve years, from 1656 to 1668.
8. To whom did Bernier dedicate his major writing?
Answer: François Bernier dedicated his major writing to Louis XIV, the king of France.
9. Define the term ‘Hindu’.
Answer: The term “Hindu” was derived from an Old Persian word, used c. sixth-fifth centuries BCE, to refer to the region east of the river Sindhu (Indus). The Arabs continued the Persian usage and called this region “al-Hind” and its people “Hindi”. Later the Turks referred to the people east of the Indus as “Hindu”, their land as “Hindustan”, and their language as “Hindavi”. None of these expressions indicated the religious identity of the people. It was much later that the term developed religious connotations.
10. Who was Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi?
Answer: Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi was a diplomat who came visiting from Herat and provided one of the most important descriptions of the city of Vijayanagara in the fifteenth century. He visited south India in the 1440s.
11. How many chapters does Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind have?
Answer: Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is divided into 80 chapters.
12. What did Ibn Battuta consider more important than book knowledge?
Answer: Unlike most other members of his class, Ibn Battuta considered experience gained through travels to be a more important source of knowledge than books.
13. Why did Ibn Battuta initially travel to Delhi?
Answer: Ibn Battuta had heard about Muhammad bin Tughlaq, the Sultan of Delhi, and lured by his reputation as a generous patron of arts and letters, set off for Delhi.
14. Describe the structure Al-Biruni used in each chapter of Kitab-ul-Hind.
Answer: Generally, though not always, Al-Biruni adopted a distinctive structure in each chapter of the Kitab-ul-Hind, beginning with a question, following this up with a description based on Sanskritic traditions, and concluding with a comparison with other cultures.
15. What kind of subjects did Al-Biruni cover in Kitab-ul-Hind?
Answer: Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind covered subjects such as religion and philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology.
16. Mention two unique aspects of Ibn Battuta’s description of the coconut.
Answer: Ibn Battuta described the coconut tree as peculiar and astonishing. Two unique aspects he noted were:
(i) The nut resembles a man’s head, containing features that look like two eyes and a mouth.
(ii) The inside of the green coconut looks like the brain, and attached to it is a fibre which looks like hair.
17. Why was Ibn Battuta impressed by Delhi?
Answer: Ibn Battuta was impressed by Delhi, describing it as a vast city with a great population, the largest in India. He noted its rampart was without parallel, being eleven cubits wide and containing houses for sentries, gate-keepers, and store-houses for edibles, magazines, ammunition, and siege machines that could last a long time. He observed that horsemen and infantrymen could move within the rampart from one end of the city to the other, and it had windows for light, was built of stone and brick, possessed many towers, and had twenty-eight gates. He also mentioned its fine cemetery with domed or arched graves where flowers like tuberose, jasmine, and wild rose blossomed in all seasons.
18. What was distinctive about Ibn Battuta’s method of travel writing?
Answer: Ibn Battuta’s method of travel writing was distinctive in that he considered experience gained through travels to be a more important source of knowledge than books. His dictated narrative aimed to provide entertainment to the mind and delight to the ears and eyes. It included a variety of curious particulars, the exposition of which offered edification, and recounted marvellous things to arouse interest. He particularly highlighted anything unfamiliar to ensure the listener or reader was suitably impressed by accounts of distant yet accessible worlds.
19. What comparison did Ibn Battuta make between Indian cities?
Answer: Ibn Battuta compared Delhi and Daulatabad. He described Delhi as a vast city with a great population, the largest in India. He noted that Daulatabad (in Maharashtra) was no less impressive and easily rivalled Delhi in size.
20. Explain Al-Biruni’s objectives in writing Kitab-ul-Hind.
Answer: Al-Biruni described his work, the Kitab-ul-Hind, as a help to those who want to discuss religious questions with the Hindus, and as a repertory of information to those who want to associate with them.
21. Discuss Ibn Battuta’s experiences of travelling from Multan to Delhi.
Answer: According to Ibn Battuta, the journey from Multan to Delhi took forty days. Travelling was insecure; while travelling from Multan to Delhi, his caravan was attacked by bands of robbers. Many of his fellow travellers lost their lives in the attack, and those travellers who survived, including Ibn Battuta, were severely wounded.
22. Describe Ibn Battuta’s account of Daulatabad’s market.
Answer: In Daulatabad, there is a market place for male and female singers, known as Tarababad. It is described as one of the greatest and most beautiful bazaars. It has numerous shops, and every shop has a door which leads into the house of the owner. The shops are decorated with carpets, and at the centre of a shop, there is a swing on which sits the female singer, decked with all kinds of finery, and her female attendants swing her. In the middle of the market place stands a large cupola, which is carpeted and decorated. The chief of the musicians takes his place there every Thursday after the dawn prayers, accompanied by his servants and slaves. The female singers come in successive crowds, sing before him and dance until dusk, after which he withdraws. This bazaar also has mosques for offering prayers. One of the Hindu rulers alighted at the cupola every time he passed by this market place, and the female singers would sing before him. Even some Muslim rulers did the same.
23. Explain the features of the postal system observed by Ibn Battuta.
Answer: Ibn Battuta observed that the postal system in India was of two kinds. The horse-post, called uluq, was run by royal horses stationed at a distance of every four miles. The foot-post, called dawa, had three stations per mile, which is one-third of a mile. At every third of a mile, there was a well-populated village, outside which were three pavilions where men sat with girded loins ready to start. Each of these men carried a rod, two cubits in length, with copper bells at the top. When the courier started from the city, he held the letter in one hand and the rod with its bells in the other, running as fast as he could. When the men in the next pavilion heard the ringing of the bell, they got ready. As soon as the courier reached them, one of them took the letter and ran at top speed, shaking the rod until he reached the next dawa. This process continued until the letter reached its destination. This foot-post was noted to be quicker than the horse-post and was often used to transport the fruits of Khurasan, which were much desired in India.
24. Why was Bernier critical of Mughal India’s landownership system?
Answer: Bernier was critical of the Mughal landownership system because he believed one of the fundamental differences between Mughal India and Europe was the lack of private property in land in India. He was a firm believer in the virtues of private property and saw crown ownership of land, which he thought was the system in the Mughal Empire where the emperor owned all the land and distributed it among his nobles, as harmful for both the state and its people. He argued that owing to crown ownership, landholders could not pass on their land to their children. Consequently, they were averse to any long-term investment in the sustenance and expansion of production. Bernier believed this absence of private property in land had led to the uniform ruination of agriculture, excessive oppression of the peasantry, and a continuous decline in the living standards of all sections of society, except the ruling aristocracy. He intended his description of Mughal India to serve as a warning about the negative consequences of not recognizing the “merits” of private property.
25. Discuss Bernier’s views on the Indian artisan community.
Answer: Bernier observed that artisans in India worked in imperial workshops called karkhanas. In these large halls, different artisans like embroiderers, goldsmiths, painters, varnishers, joiners, turners, tailors, shoe-makers, and manufacturers of silk, brocade, and fine muslins were employed under the supervision of a master. They would come in the morning, work the whole day, and return home in the evening, with their time gliding away in a quiet, regular manner. Bernier felt that artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their manufactures, since he believed profits were appropriated by the state, leading to a consequent decline in manufactures. He noted that artisans were compelled by necessity or otherwise to employ themselves in manufacturing goods like carpets, brocades, embroideries, gold and silver cloths, and various silk and cotton goods, which were used domestically or exported. Despite this, he remarked on the handsome pieces of workmanship made by persons often destitute of tools and instruction, sometimes imitating European articles so perfectly that the difference was hardly discernible. He mentioned that Indians made excellent muskets, fowling-pieces, and beautiful gold ornaments possibly exceeding the workmanship of European goldsmiths, and he often admired the beauty, softness, and delicacy of their paintings. However, he also conveyed a sense that despite great activity, there was little progress, with no one aspiring for improvement in their condition of life.
26. What was Bernier’s perspective on urban life in Mughal India?
Answer: Bernier described Mughal cities as “camp towns,” meaning towns that owed their existence and depended for their survival on the imperial camp. He believed these towns came into existence when the imperial court moved in and rapidly declined when it moved out. He suggested they did not have viable social and economic foundations but were dependent on imperial patronage. He saw cities and towns as ruined and contaminated with “ill air”. This perspective, however, was an oversimplification, as there were various kinds of towns, including manufacturing towns, trading towns, port-towns, sacred centres, and pilgrimage towns, whose existence indicated the prosperity of merchant communities and professional classes.
27. Describe the significance of the coconut and paan in Ibn Battuta’s accounts.
Answer: In Ibn Battuta’s accounts, the coconut and paan were significant because they represented the unfamiliar and exotic nature of the Indian subcontinent to his audience. He described the coconut tree’s resemblance to a date-palm and the nut’s likeness to a man’s head, detailing its uses for making cords and cables. He described paan (betel) as a vine cultivated for its leaves, detailing the manner of its consumption with areca nut and chalk. By meticulously describing these items, which were completely unfamiliar back home, Ibn Battuta aimed to highlight things he found unusual or remarkable, thereby ensuring that the listener or reader was suitably impressed by accounts of distant yet accessible worlds. These descriptions are good examples of his strategies of representation.
28. Describe Al-Biruni’s views on the barriers to understanding Indian society.
Answer: Al-Biruni was aware of the problems inherent in understanding a different society and discussed several “barriers” that he felt obstructed understanding. The first barrier was language; he found Sanskrit to be vastly different from Arabic and Persian, making the translation of ideas and concepts difficult due to its enormous range in words and inflections. The second barrier he identified was the difference in religious beliefs and practices between the societies. The third barrier, according to him, was the self-absorption and consequent insularity of the local population (Hindus).
29. Discuss Ibn Battuta’s perception of Indian urban centres.
Answer: Ibn Battuta perceived cities in the Indian subcontinent as full of exciting opportunities for those with the necessary drive, resources, and skills. He found them to be densely populated and prosperous, though sometimes disrupted by wars and invasions. His accounts suggest most cities had crowded streets and bright, colourful markets stacked with a wide variety of goods. He described Delhi as a vast city with a great population, the largest in India, and noted Daulatabad in Maharashtra was no less and easily rivalled Delhi in size. Bazaars were not just places of economic transaction but also hubs of social and cultural activities, often containing mosques and temples, and spaces for public performances by dancers, musicians, and singers. For example, he described Daulatabad’s Tarababad market for singers, highlighting its vibrancy and the presence of both Hindu and Muslim patrons enjoying the music and dance. He also noted the architectural features like ramparts, gates (darwaza), store-houses, mosques, and cemeteries with domes or arches in Delhi.
30. Explain Bernier’s critique of the Mughal landownership system and its effects on society.
Answer: Bernier critiqued the Mughal landownership system based on his belief that the emperor owned all the land and distributed it among his nobles, signifying a lack of private property in land, which he saw as a fundamental difference from Europe. He was a firm believer in the virtues of private property and viewed crown ownership as harmful to both the state and its people. According to Bernier, this system meant landholders could not pass land to their children and were therefore averse to long-term investment in sustaining or expanding production. This, he argued, led to disastrous consequences: the uniform ruination of agriculture, excessive oppression of the peasantry (who were often deprived of subsistence and even lost children to slavery, sometimes abandoning the country in despair), and a continuous decline in living standards for all sections of society except the ruling aristocracy. He asserted this absence of private property prevented the emergence of “improving” landlords like those in Western Europe. As an extension, he described Indian society as consisting of undifferentiated masses of impoverished people subjugated by a small minority of a very rich and powerful ruling class, stating confidently, “There is no middle state in India.” He intended his description of Mughal India to serve as a warning to Europeans, particularly France, about the dangers of such a system, suggesting it led to kingdoms becoming “deserts and solitudes, of beggars and barbarians.”
31. How did Bernier compare Mughal India with contemporary Europe?
Answer: François Bernier was far more preoccupied with comparing and contrasting what he saw in India with the situation in Europe in general and France in particular. He constantly compared Mughal India with contemporary Europe, generally emphasising the superiority of the latter. His representation of India works on the model of binary opposition, where India is presented as the inverse of Europe. He also ordered the perceived differences hierarchically, so that India appeared to be inferior to the Western world. In virtually every instance, Bernier described what he saw in India as a bleak situation in comparison to developments in Europe. One of the fundamental differences he highlighted was the lack of private property in land in Mughal India, unlike in Europe, which he believed was harmful to the state and its people. He saw the Mughal king as the king of “beggars and barbarians,” with cities ruined by “ill air” and fields “overspread with bushes” due to crown ownership of land, implicitly warning European kings against adopting such a model.
32. Describe Ibn Battuta’s account of slave practices in India.
Answer: According to Ibn Battuta’s account, slaves were openly sold in markets like any other commodity and were regularly exchanged as gifts. He himself purchased slaves as gifts for Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq and presented a slave along with other items to the governor of Multan. He noted that the Sultan gifted hundreds of slaves. There was considerable differentiation among slaves; some female slaves in the Sultan’s service were experts in music and dance, and others were employed by the Sultan to keep a watch on his nobles. It was the habit of the emperor to keep a slave spy with every noble. Female scavengers also gathered information within houses for slave girls to report. Slaves were generally used for domestic labour, and Ibn Battuta found their services particularly indispensable for carrying women and men on palanquins or dola. The price of slaves, especially female slaves for domestic labour, was very low, and most families who could afford it kept at least one or two. Most female slaves were captured in raids and expeditions.
33. Analyse Bernier’s observations on the practice of sati.
Answer: Bernier chose the practice of sati for detailed description, highlighting it as a crucial marker of difference between Western and Eastern societies. He noted that while some women seemed to embrace death cheerfully, others were forced to die. His observations included a poignant description of a child sati he witnessed in Lahore, involving a very young widow, perhaps only twelve years old. He described her distress, trembling, and weeping, and how she was forcibly seated on the pyre, tied up, and burnt alive by Brahmanas assisted by an old woman. Bernier expressed his own difficulty in repressing his feelings and rage at witnessing this event. His observations thus emphasized the element of coercion and the brutality involved in the practice for at least some victims.
34. Discuss the complexities Bernier acknowledged in his portrayal of Indian society.
Answer: While Bernier’s preoccupation with projecting the Mughal state as tyrannical and Indian society as consisting of undifferentiated impoverished masses under a rich ruling class (asserting “There is no middle state in India”) is obvious, his descriptions occasionally hint at a more complex social reality. For instance, despite stating artisans had no incentive to improve due to state appropriation of profits, he conceded that vast quantities of the world’s precious metals flowed into India because manufactures like silks, cotton, and indigo were exported in exchange for gold and silver. He also noticed the existence of a prosperous merchant community engaged in long-distance exchange. He observed that large parts of the country, like Bengal, were extremely fertile, surpassing Egypt in production, and that in many parts, the population was abundant and the land well-tilled. He acknowledged that artisans, though perhaps “naturally indolent,” were compelled by necessity to manufacture various goods for domestic use and export. Furthermore, he described different kinds of towns – manufacturing, trading, port-towns, sacred centres, pilgrimage towns – whose existence indicated the prosperity of merchant communities and professional classes like physicians, teachers, lawyers, painters, architects, and musicians, who served various patrons or ordinary people, contradicting his simpler “camp town” theory.
35. Explain the role of women in commercial and domestic spheres as mentioned in the accounts of Ibn Battuta and Bernier.
Answer: Ibn Battuta’s account mentions women primarily in the context of slavery. Female slaves served in the Sultan’s court as experts in music and dance. They were also employed by the Sultan to spy on his nobles, gathering information sometimes via female scavengers who could enter houses freely. Slaves, including women, were essential for domestic labour and for carrying people in palanquins. The price for female domestic slaves was noted as being very low. Bernier’s account focuses significantly on women in the context of the practice of sati, describing both women who seemed to embrace death willingly and others, like a young girl he witnessed, who were brutally forced to die. His account also mentions an old woman assisting in the forced sati. While the broader context of the period suggests women played crucial roles in agriculture, non-agricultural production, and even commerce (with women from merchant families participating in business and legal disputes), these specific roles are not detailed in the provided excerpts attributed directly to Ibn Battuta or Bernier, whose observations on women focused more on slaves and sati respectively.
Additional MCQs
1. Which traveller was born in 973 in Khwarizm?
A. Ibn Battuta
B. Al-Biruni
C. Bernier
D. Samarqandi
Answer: B. Al-Biruni
2. Which work is divided into 80 chapters covering diverse subjects?
A. Rihla
B. Kitab-ul-Hind
C. Travels in India
D. Memoirs of India
Answer: B. Kitab-ul-Hind
3. Into which language did Al-Biruni translate Sanskrit texts?
A. Latin
B. Arabic
C. Persian
D. Hebrew
Answer: B. Arabic
4. What does metrology study?
A. Astronomy
B. Alchemy
C. Measurement
D. Philosophy
Answer: C. Measurement
5. Who is the author of the travelogue titled Rihla?
A. Al-Biruni
B. Ibn Battuta
C. Bernier
D. Samarqandi
Answer: B. Ibn Battuta
6. At what age did Ibn Battuta begin his journey?
A. 18 years
B. 20 years
C. 22 years
D. 24 years
Answer: C. 22 years
7. In which year did Ibn Battuta return home after his travels?
A. 1342
B. 1347
C. 1354
D. 1360
Answer: C. 1354
8. To which destination was Ibn Battuta sent as the Sultan’s envoy?
A. Persia
B. China
C. Africa
D. Europe
Answer: B. China
9. Which official position did Ibn Battuta hold in Delhi?
A. Merchant
B. Soldier
C. Qazi
D. Governor
Answer: C. Qazi
10. Which traveller provided detailed accounts of fourteenth‐century social and cultural life in India?
A. Al-Biruni
B. Ibn Battuta
C. Bernier
D. Marco Polo
Answer: B. Ibn Battuta
11. Which fruit is described as having a nut that resembles a man’s head?
A. Paan
B. Coconut
C. Date
D. Areca nut
Answer: B. Coconut
12. What is the primary use of betel as described in the accounts?
A. Cooking spice
B. Chewing preparation
C. Medicinal herb
D. Dye for cloth
Answer: B. Chewing preparation
13. For how many months did Ibn Battuta serve as qazi in the Maldives?
A. 6 months
B. 12 months
C. 18 months
D. 24 months
Answer: C. 18 months
14. What is the name of the horse-post in India’s postal system?
A. Uluq
B. Dawa
C. Darwaza
D. Karkhana
Answer: A. Uluq
15. At what interval were royal horses stationed along the postal route?
A. 2 miles
B. 3 miles
C. 4 miles
D. 5 miles
Answer: C. 4 miles
16. What is the foot-post called in the Indian postal system?
A. Uluq
B. Dawa
C. Karkhana
D. Darwaza
Answer: B. Dawa
17. Which traveller served as a physician to a Mughal prince?
A. Ibn Battuta
B. Bernier
C. Al-Biruni
D. Samarqandi
Answer: B. Bernier
18. For how many years did François Bernier reside in India?
A. 10 years
B. 12 years
C. 15 years
D. 18 years
Answer: B. 12 years
19. With which emperor’s court was François Bernier closely associated?
A. Shah Jahan
B. Muhammad bin Tughlaq
C. Louis XIV
D. Sultan Mahmud
Answer: A. Shah Jahan
20. How is the structure of Kitab-ul-Hind generally described?
A. Narrative style
B. Geometric structure
C. Poetic form
D. Dialogue format
Answer: B. Geometric structure
21. Which barrier did Al-Biruni identify first when understanding Indian culture?
A. Religion
B. Insularity
C. Language
D. Geography
Answer: C. Language
22. Which texts did Al-Biruni consult to understand Indian society?
A. Vedas and Manusmriti
B. Bible and Quran
C. Epics and Folktales
D. Journals and Diaries
Answer: A. Vedas and Manusmriti
23. How did Al-Biruni describe the nature of Sanskrit?
A. Limited vocabulary
B. Uniform inflections
C. Enormous range
D. Simplistic structure
Answer: C. Enormous range
24. According to Al-Biruni, from which part of Brahman were the Brahmana created?
A. Head
B. Shoulders
C. Thigh
D. Feet
Answer: A. Head
25. According to Al-Biruni, from which part of Brahman were the Kshatriya created?
A. Head
B. Shoulders
C. Thigh
D. Feet
Answer: B. Shoulders
26. According to Al-Biruni, from which part of Brahman were the Vaishya created?
A. Head
B. Shoulders
C. Thigh
D. Feet
Answer: C. Thigh
27. According to Al-Biruni, from which part of Brahman were the Shudra created?
A. Head
B. Shoulders
C. Thigh
D. Feet
Answer: D. Feet
28. Which traveller compared Indian urban centres with those in Europe?
A. Al-Biruni
B. Ibn Battuta
C. Bernier
D. Marco Polo
Answer: C. Bernier
29. How many gates did Ibn Battuta record in the city of Delhi?
A. 20 gates
B. 24 gates
C. 28 gates
D. 32 gates
Answer: C. 28 gates
30. What term did Ibn Battuta use for the gates of Delhi?
A. Darwaza
B. Dawa
C. Uluq
D. Karkhana
Answer: A. Darwaza
31. Which unit did Ibn Battuta use to measure the rampart’s breadth in Delhi?
A. Cubits
B. Yards
C. Feet
D. Miles
Answer: A. Cubits
32. Which feature did Ibn Battuta mention as part of Delhi’s cemetery?
A. Pavilions
B. Domed graves
C. Stone benches
D. Fountains
Answer: B. Domed graves
33. What commodity from Khurasan was transported by the foot-post?
A. Rice
B. Fruits
C. Spices
D. Textiles
Answer: B. Fruits
34. Which traveller asserted that Mughal India lacked private land ownership?
A. Al-Biruni
B. Ibn Battuta
C. Bernier
D. Marco Polo
Answer: C. Bernier
35. According to Bernier, what was a consequence of crown ownership of land?
A. Agricultural improvement
B. Economic decline
C. Technological progress
D. Social equality
Answer: B. Economic decline
36. Which concept was influenced by Bernier’s descriptions of state authority?
A. Oriental despotism
B. Feudalism
C. Capitalism
D. Democracy
Answer: A. Oriental despotism
37. Who later developed the concept of the Asiatic mode of production based on such accounts?
A. Montesquieu
B. Karl Marx
C. Adam Smith
D. Rousseau
Answer: B. Karl Marx
38. Which traveller mentioned that slave girls were used for spying?
A. Al-Biruni
B. Ibn Battuta
C. Bernier
D. Tavernier
Answer: B. Ibn Battuta
39. Which practice concerning women did Bernier describe in detail?
A. Marriage rites
B. Sati ritual
C. Education system
D. Attire customs
Answer: B. Sati ritual
40. In which city did Bernier record a poignant child sati?
A. Delhi
B. Multan
C. Lahore
D. Calicut
Answer: C. Lahore
41. Approximately how old was the child described in the sati account?
A. 10 years
B. 12 years
C. 14 years
D. 16 years
Answer: B. 12 years
42. Which social group did Bernier claim did not exist in India?
A. Nobility
B. Middle state
C. Peasantry
D. Artisans
Answer: B. Middle state
43. Whose lifespan is recorded as 973–1048?
A. Ibn Battuta
B. Al-Biruni
C. Bernier
D. Marco Polo
Answer: B. Al-Biruni
44. Which traveller was born in Tangier?
A. Al-Biruni
B. Ibn Battuta
C. Bernier
D. Samarqandi
Answer: B. Ibn Battuta
45. Whose works were reprinted eight times in French between 1670 and 1725?
A. Ibn Battuta
B. Al-Biruni
C. Bernier
D. Tavernier
Answer: C. Bernier
46. Which subjects were covered by Sanskrit works translated into Arabic?
A. Astronomy
B. Mathematics
C. Medicine
D. All of these
Answer: D. All of these
47. What structure did Al-Biruni’s chapters generally follow?
A. Narrative and dialogue
B. Question, description, comparison
C. Exposition, debate, summary
D. Introduction, body, conclusion
Answer: B. Question, description, comparison
48. Which work is also known as Rihla?
A. Al-Biruni’s chronicle
B. Ibn Battuta’s travelogue
C. Bernier’s diary
D. Marco Polo’s record
Answer: B. Ibn Battuta’s travelogue
49. To which French king did François Bernier dedicate his major writings?
A. Louis XIV
B. Charles IX
C. Henry IV
D. Francis I
Answer: A. Louis XIV
